Enderunlu Fâzıl's Depictions of Men: The Allure of Masculinity

Enderunlu Fâzıl openly expresses his attraction to men in his writings. His autobiographical Defter-i Aşk begins with a discussion on the relationship between love and beauty, suggesting that human love is a step toward divine love. In this work, he narrates the men he loved, focusing in detail on four of the twenty-two who ruled over his heart. His first love, a young man from the Treasury Chamber of the Ottoman palace, is described as having a ruby-like complexion, graceful walk, and delicate manners. Although their love was platonic, the man's sudden disappearance deeply affected him.

Following this, Fâzıl fell in love with a man named Bostancıbaşızade Süleyman, whom he described as a youth with a fresh body, gentle demeanour, and cypress-like stature. However, Fâzıl's love remained unrequited, as Süleyman never spoke to him or looked at him kindly. Despite this, Süleyman stayed in the poet's heart for a year and a half before he passed away. This unreciprocated love exemplifies Fâzıl's internal conflict between love and the fear of sin, as he avoided verses about Lot from the Quran¹⁰ during recitation:

If I were to begin reciting the Quran,

I would forget the story of Lot

[…]

My heart is both a servant to the allure of love

And fearful of love.

Like a virgin girl who feels desire

Yet recoils in fear and aversion due to the verses in the Quran.

Kılsam âgâze-i hatm-i Kur'an

Eylerim kıssa-i Lût'u nisyân

[…]

Hem gönül cezbe-i ‘aşka bende

‘Aşkdan hem dahi havf üstünde

Bâkire kız gibi hem şehveti var

Hem veca'dan sakınup nefreti var

(Kuru 2005: 499)

Another significant figure in his life was the singer Şehlevendim,¹¹ whose voice, rather than beauty, captivated Fâzıl. Şehlevendim was involved with other men and was often seen with an older man who, out of jealousy, eventually restricted his movements. Despite these complications, the poet remained in love with Şehlevendim for three years and suggests that the troubles he faced – likely leading to his expulsion from the palace – were due to his attachment to him.

Another of Fâzıl's lovers was a gypsy dancer named İsmail, a coquettish dark-skinned man. İsmail eventually married and distanced himself from the poet's circles, losing the attention of his admirers. He remained in Fâzıl's heart for seven months, but years later, the poet saw him on the street, performing with a bear, his beauty faded. Fâzıl ends his account with the disappointment of seeing someone he once loved in decline.¹²

Fâzıl's Dîvân similarly reflects his admiration for physical beauty; for instance, he vividly describes figures he observed in mosques:

Oh, in the mosque, he is tall like a minaret

With a radiant face, swaying like a cypress.

Câmi‘de aman âh o minâre gibi kâmet

Ol şu‘leli ruhsârla bir serv-i revândır

(Beyhan 2021: 442)

In his Dîvân, there are also poems dedicated to various men, including a fair-skinned hammam attendant (Beyhan 2021: 555), a Jewish beauty with heart-piercing eyes (ibid.: 701), another Jewish beauty named Nesim (ibid.: 907), a pharmacist who captivated his admirers (ibid.: 711), young men with white calves (ibid.: 903), dancers¹³ (ibid.: 949), and a soldier from the seventy-first division of the Janissary corps (ibid.: 861). The Dîvân also includes poems about Şehlevendim (ibid.: 912), previously mentioned in Defter-i Aşk. One of these poems is particularly notable, as it reflects the poet's dissatisfaction with Şehlevendim, who, in his eyes, had lost his charm due to aging and gaining weight (ibid.: 981).

In Çengi-nâme, Fâzıl describes male dancers in Istanbul, detailing 43 performers from various ethnic backgrounds, including Rum, Jewish, Armenian, Croatian, Egyptian, and Italian. The poet emphasizes their physical features and sexual allure, explicitly mentioning their names or nicknames. He admires dancers with fair skin, dark eyes and eyebrows, small hands and mouths, red lips, and slender waists. However, he criticizes traits such as unproportioned bodies, large noses, excessive hairiness, baldness, sweating, lack of cleanliness, an ungraceful gait, poor speech, and extremes in weight.

Fâzıl's prejudices toward certain ethnicities are evident in the work, as he sometimes notes that a dancer's only flaw is being Armenian or Jewish.¹⁴ He also comments on aging, stating that dancers who were once beautiful lost their charm as they aged and grew facial hair. For instance, he describes a dancer named Todori, whose decline he attributes to both age and illness:

Todori is fifty-eight years old,

And also suffers from syphilis.

Do not think he has hair only on his eyebrows

He has as much hair as a Deliorman¹⁵

Todori elli sekiz yaşında

Hem Firenk zahmeti var başında

Mûyu zannetme hemân kaşında

Deliorman kadar kılları var

(Keskin 2013: 358)

Hûbân-nâme¹⁶ is Fâzıl's most extensive work on men, composed at the request of his male lover, who inquired about the most handsome ethnicities and asked for vivid descriptions. Fâzıl used simplified language, possibly because his lover was younger or less educated, and began the work by explaining basic geographical concepts.¹⁷ The main section explores the physical and characteristic features of men from various ethnicities. According to Fâzıl, Indian men are dark-skinned, thin, and lack coquettish charm. Iranians are tall, round-faced, delicate, and beautiful, although their habit of growing side-locks is unappealing. Uzbeks are unattractive and lack allure. Baghdadi men are noted for their rosy cheeks, black hair, dark eyes, and harshness towards lovers. Egyptians are dark-skinned, coquettish, and have captivating voices. Black Africans are loyal and brave but considered not beautiful, while Abyssinians are sensual, with soft skin and late-developing body hair. Yemenis are frail, melancholic, and rarely beautiful. Moroccans are typically dark-skinned, wild, and fierce.

Men from Hejaz are deemed unattractive, while those from Taif are praised for their beauty. Damascene men are fair-skinned but hairy and lack coquettish charm. Desert Arabs have dark features, and a strong presence. Tripolitan boys are handsome, while Aleppine men are also attractive but often bear facial scars. Some Turkmen are strikingly beautiful but have bad tempers. Kurds are noted for their strength. Anatolians lack grace, charm, and conversational depth, yet many of them are described as destined for paradise. Men from Rumelia resemble those of Istanbul: polite, eloquent, tall, and handsome. And boys from the Mediterranean islands are generally admired for their beauty.

The poet's observations on Istanbul are particularly compelling, reflecting his deep connection to the city. He likens the world to a book, with Istanbul as its index, and describes the city as a microcosm of diverse ethnicities, each district akin to a separate country. Despite this diversity, he generalizes Istanbul's inhabitants as delicate, eloquent, slender, and intelligent, contrasting them with rural people, whom he claims are preoccupied with physical needs rather than intellect.

The section on Rum boys (Greeks of Anatolia) is particularly significant, as Fâzıl's male lover, who inspired the work, was Rum. Fâzıl suggests that God bestowed beauty upon the Rums in abundance, like a vast sea, while granting it to others only in small amounts, like a drop. He attributes this to the supposed effects of Greek medicines on their nature, asserting that they never produce hunchbacks or dwarfs. Rums are portrayed with white necks, black hair, and late-developing facial hair. Although the poet typically prefers boys who are young and without facial hair, he makes an exception for Rums, declaring that he would love them even if they reached the age of fifty.

Fâzıl also admires darker-skinned Rums, particularly the tavern apprentices in Galata, whom he criticizes for leading others into sin. He recounts the story of a spendthrift who squandered his inheritance on such dancers, lavishing them with gifts like rings and watches. According to the poet, Rum male dancers charmed their generous patrons with sweet words and smiles but abandoned them once their money was gone. Fâzıl admits that he, too, was deceived by their flattery.¹⁸ He concludes by praising the prohibition of wine and the closure of taverns during his time.

The poet offers clear and definitive opinions on different races in Hûbân-nâme. For instance, he asserts that Armenians are not as beautiful or charming as Rums, emphasizing their hairiness but acknowledging their wisdom. He is confident in his belief that Armenians fully match his description. Jews are portrayed as having yellowish complexions, bald heads, shabby clothing, and cowardly dispositions, though he recognizes their musical knowledge. Tatars are described as unattractive, with broad faces, flat noses, narrow eyes, and lacking charm. Albanians, by contrast, are noted for their fair skin and fiery temperament, with some serving as hammam attendants (tellak).¹⁹ Bosnians are deemed beautiful but wild. Georgians are characterized as very beautiful yet difficult to approach due to their high moral standards, while Circassians are considered even more beautiful, as well as generous and compassionate. Poles are described as having rosy cheeks and fair skin, whereas Bulgarians are viewed as less graceful.

Europeans living in Islamic countries are considered beautiful. French boys, while admired for their looks, are said to engage only with women and even punish men who pursue relationships with other men. Fâzıl expresses a dislike for the Dutch, finding their complexions overly yellow and similar to Russians, despite their greater openness to intimacy. Spaniards are described as fair-skinned with black hair and eyebrows, tall stature, yet lacking in virtue. Englishmen are depicted as having moon-like complexions, often working as sailors, and being quick to give their hearts to others. Austrians are praised for their height, handsomeness, and well-proportioned figures, with admirers never turned away.

Russians are portrayed as having yellowish foreheads and faces, sea-green eyes, being unattractive, having excessive lust but being inclined towards women, and having poor morals and dispositions. The poet also shares his views on the indigenous people of the Americas, referring to them as having moon-like broad faces, narrow eyes, crooked legs, being talkative, and wearing animal hides on their backs. However, he notes that they have become more attractive after mixing with other races.

Fâzıl's assessments of different races reflect the political context of his era. His negative views on Russians, for instance, likely stem from the Ottoman-Russian conflicts.²⁰ Additionally, his evaluations often draw upon personal encounters. For instance, his praise of Algerians and Tunisians reflects individuals he admired, while his observations about gypsies performing bear dances indirectly allude to a gypsy lover mentioned in Defter-i Aşk.

After discussing the characteristics of men from various ethnic backgrounds, Fâzıl describes his ideal man. According to him, this man should have cheeks luminous as the moon, a height akin to a cypress tree, proportional hands and mouth, black eyebrows and eyes, a captivating gaze, rosy cheeks, a small mouth, a well-balanced physique (neither fat nor thin), a long neck with flowing hair, muscular arms, and calves as white as silver. Fâzıl playfully notes that he has no objection to a man with freshly grown moustaches and wearing short black şalvar (traditional trousers). Additionally, the ideal man should avoid effeminate behaviour, walk with the confidence of a sailor, possess a firm and strong physique, a resonant voice, and fiery beauty that attracts many admirers. Fâzıl happily declares that all these attributes are present in his own beloved.

It is evident that Fâzıl makes broad generalizations when assessing the physical and character traits of men from different ethnic groups in Hûbân-nâme. He himself acknowledges this in the text:

Our judgment concerns the majority, not the minority;

Our discourse pertains to the body, not the soul.

Hükmümüz aza degil gâlibedir

Sözümüz rûha degil kâlıbadır

(Enderunlu Fâzıl 1793: 27b)

According to contemporary understanding, Hûbân-nâme contains numerous comments that could offend various ethnic groups. However, Fâzıl states that he actually endeavours to avoid ridiculing people:

Let us not elaborate further on the details of the regions,

So as not to inadvertently ridicule them.

Gayrı tafsîl-i bilâd itmeyelim

Sehv ile hicv-i ‘ibâd itmeyelim

(Enderunlu Fâzıl 1793: 29a)

Still, Fâzıl openly acknowledges that he has, in a sense, condensed the nations into a nutshell to make his work more engaging:

I have placed all the nations into an almond shell

So that the reader may not find distress.

Kışr-ı bâdâma kodum hep mileli

Okuyan bulmaya tâ kim meleli

(Enderunlu Fâzıl 1793: 70a)

Even in Zenân-nâme (Öztürk 2002) – a work primarily about women – Fâzıl occasionally digresses to comment on men from various ethnic groups. For instance, he discusses the attire of men from Damascus and Morocco, praises the beauty of Rum, Albanian, and Croatian boys, highlights the difficulty of capturing Georgian men's attention, and remarks on the lack of appeal in Armenian men.

Enderunlu Fâzıl's Depictions of Women: Beauty and Disdain

Enderunlu Fâzıl's perspectives on women are primarily reflected in Zenân-nâme, a work he composed at the insistence of his male lover, for whom he had also written Hûbân-nâme. At the beginning, Fâzıl offers a positive portrayal of women, stating that God adorned them with hairless cheeks and other features to make them appealing and ensure the continuation of the human race. However, his tone shifts as he explains his reluctance to write the work. His lover, confessing an attraction to women, had requested a companion piece to Hûbân-nâme focused on women. Initially resistant, Fâzıl objected, citing his lack of interest in women and disapproval of his lover's preference for them. His sharp response reflects this sentiment:

While everyone calls you a beauty like the moon,

Is it fitting that they now label you a womanizer?

Do not ask this humble servant about that group;

I have not walked that path.

I have not planted a sapling in that garden,

Nor taken aim in that field.

We are poets; would harm our honour,

Prostitutes cannot enter our Dîvân.

My nature is like mud in this matter,

I detest those who have sunk into the mire.²¹

Sana ‘âlem dir iken mehpâre

Şimdi lâyık mı disün zenpâre

Sorma ol zümreyi bu dâ’îden

Ben güzâr itmedim ol vâdîden

Ben o bâğ içre fidân dikmemişim

Öyle meydâna nişân dikmemişim

Şâ’iriz rahne verir şânımıza

Giremez fâhişe Dîvân’ımıza

İşte bu yolda benim çamurum

Hep batakçılar ise menfûrum

(Öztürk 2002: 76)

The key point to consider is Fâzıl's belief that discussing women is unbecoming of a poet, reflecting the literary conventions of his time.²² Fâzıl also criticizes his lover's attraction to women, remarking that being labelled a ‘womanizer’ is derogatory, shedding light on his social circle's attitudes.

Despite his objections, his lover insists on a book about women, even setting a one-week deadline. When Fâzıl protests, his lover becomes angry, threatens to leave him for rivals, and refuses to visit him until the work is completed. Reluctantly, Fâzıl begins writing, using the introduction to caution his lover against this ‘dark path’. He frames attraction to women as a result of their deceitfulness and suggests it is not a virtuous inclination.

After these remarks, Fâzıl describes the ideal woman, who, in his view, should be a virgin, young, slender, soft-spoken, and graceful, ideally around 15 years old. She should not be an Anatolian Turk, nor should she be fat, large, or display the exclamations or mannerisms of peasants. Fâzıl insists she must not be old-fashioned, falsely dignified, promiscuous, or a mother with illegitimate children. He adds that her ‘gate of desire’ should be tight, dry, and warm.

Fâzıl then offers advice for men seeking to attract women,²³ reflecting the gender dynamics and standards of beauty of his time. He emphasizes the importance of a man's attire, detailing how he should dress to appear dignified. Interestingly, he suggests that women are drawn to men who appear indifferent. When a well-dressed man refrains from engaging with women and departs from their company, they will vie for his attention, even to the point of insulting one another. Despite these instructions, Fâzıl cautions his lover against becoming entirely devoted to women, warning him not to forget the company of men.

Following this, the text evaluates women from various ethnic backgrounds, detailing their physical and moral traits. Fâzıl describes Indian women as having ‘cold interiors’, referring to their sexual organs, while Uzbek women are unattractive and wrinkled. Egyptian women are lustful but possess beautiful voices, Sudanese women are better suited to the kitchen than the bedroom, Abyssinian women are so frail that even after intercourse their virginity remains intact, and Yemeni women are plagued by illnesses. He criticizes Moroccan women for their ill-naturedness but praises the chastity of Meccan women. Fâzıl also expresses disdain for the tattooed bodies and nose rings of Bedouin Arab women, the veils of Tripolitan women, the shroud-like garments of Damascene women, and the perceived lack of charm and beauty in Anatolian and Safed women.

Conversely, he praises Persian women for their charm, eyes, eyebrows, cheeks, graceful demeanour, pleasing voices, intelligence, and appreciation for the arts. He admires the attire of Algerian women and the beauty of Aleppine women. Spanish women are described as fair-skinned and tall but morally corrupt, while Europeans living in Muslim countries earn his admiration. Rum women are praised as slender, eloquent, tall, and coquettish, whereas Jewish women are deemed unattractive. Armenian women are criticized for their old-fashioned attire. While he finds the women of Rumelia and Circassia exceptionally beautiful, he considers Albanian and Bosnian women to have poor temperaments. Georgian women, though not exceptionally beautiful, are described as charming and compassionate. He admires Moldavian, Bulgarian, Croatian, and Austrian women but is particularly critical of Russian women, describing them as blue-eyed, ominous, cold, and immoral. English women are noted for their beauty, adornment, and accessibility, whereas Dutch women are criticized for their yellowish complexion and lack of charm. The women of the New World (Americans) are dismissed as not beautiful but lustful.

Fâzıl elaborates extensively on the grace and beauty of Istanbul women, categorizing them into four groups: those who are genuinely virtuous; those who appear virtuous but deceive their husbands; those who are morally corrupt; and lesbians. He praises the genuinely virtuous women, likening their purity to that of the Virgin Mary. However, he criticizes married women who, despite projecting an image of virtue, adorn themselves, frequent shops where handsome men gather, engage in flirtatious conversations, and commit adultery, while continually making demands of their husbands. He also describes ‘immoral’ women who openly flirt and charm everyone they encounter.

Fâzıl discusses lesbians as a newly emerging group in his time, previously unknown. He describes them as women who fall in love with each other, exchange affectionate words, and use intimate devices. While he disapproves of the practice, he views it as the lesser of evils. Notably, his attempt to understand women attracted to other women is intriguing, given his own attraction to men:

I considered this matter

And why it became widespread among them,

I thought perhaps they had seen too many different male sexual organs

And thus became dependent on each other.

Some women, who are naturally strong-willed,

May have adopted this peculiar practice

To avoid relying on men

Or being beholden to handsome men.

Şöyle fehm eylemişim bu kârı

Ki neden bunlara oldı sârî

Gâliba gördiler enva‘-i zükûr

Oldılar birbirine hep mecbûr

Tab‘ı gayretli olan bazı inâs

Kıldı bu fi‘l-i garîbi ihdâs

Tâ ki müstagnî bulunsun erden

İmtinân çekmeyeler dilberden

(Öztürk 2002: 118)

It is intriguing that Fâzıl struggles to comprehend why women would be attracted to other women. He suggests that even lesbian women would eventually find themselves captivated by a handsome boy, as he perceives beauty and allure to be epitomized in boys. Although he cannot fully grasp the concept of lesbian attraction, he does not harbour hostility toward it – perhaps because it does not threaten his own desires. In fact, he even remarks, ‘May God grant them to one another’.

When examining Zenân-nâme as a whole, it is clear that Fâzıl generally portrays women in a negative light. However, his evaluations of different ethnic groups reveal occasional praise. Fair skin is one of the physical traits frequently lauded, though it is not the sole standard of beauty; for example, the dark complexion of Egyptian women is also admired. While darkness is often criticized, Abyssinian women receive praise for their elegance and graceful movements. Conversely, traits such as excessive thinness, obesity, illness, hairiness, and tattoos are disparaged. Similarly, features like blond hair, pale skin, yellowish cheeks, and blue eyes are not included among the poet's ideal characteristics.

Fâzıl also evaluates women based on their attire, admiring the clothing of Algerian and European women while disapproving of the plain, shroud-like garments worn by Damascene women. Beyond appearances, Zenân-nâme also assesses women's character and intelligence. Ignorant or unkind women are criticized, while those who are articulate, knowledgeable in the arts, compassionate, modest, loyal, and ‘moral’ are praised. However, Fâzıl often qualifies his praise, suggesting that unattractive women find it easier to remain virtuous, as noted in his remarks about Yemeni women.

Towards the end of the work, Fâzıl discusses the challenges of marriage, portraying it as burdensome and restrictive. He advises his lover to avoid marriage, warning of the torment caused by an unattractive, ill-tempered, or jealous wife. According to Fâzıl, for these reasons, a wise person should avoid marriage and strive to be like Jesus.

His disdain for marriage appears deeply personal, as he likely wished to dissuade his lover from marrying, fearing he would lose him. As mentioned in Defter-i Aşk, the poet had previously experienced the loss of a lover who married and became distant, and he likely did not wish to experience this again with his current lover.

Fâzıl's negative views on marriage are consistent with his overall negative opinions about women. His sentiment is echoed in his Dîvân:

When a young man, both inside and outside, is sufficient,

Why should I bother with the concerns of marriage and children?

Bir tâze civân kâfî iken dâhil ü hâric

Ben n'eyler idim gâ’ile-i ehl ü ‘ıyâli

(Beyhan 2021: 542)

In the final sections of Zenân-nâme, Fâzıl turns his attention to the hammam, contrasting coquettish beauties with unattractive, overweight women. He describes their activities: playing with foam, splashing water, stealing each other's peshtemals, and eating and drinking together. These gatherings occasionally escalate into fights filled with insults and vulgar language. When the women leave, they feign modesty and reserve. Fâzıl concludes this depiction with a harsh critique, expressing his preference for a beardless young boy over these women.

Fâzıl also describes a neighbourhood raid in one section following the main part. In this story, a woman caught at home with a man during an extramarital affair calls the imam when the neighbours gather outside her house to raid it. Upon the imam's arrival, she discreetly slips money into his pocket, prompting him to declare her innocent and tell the neighbours to disperse. Here, the poet again criticizes women, highlighting their cunning nature.

Enderunlu Fâzıl's Perspectives on Sexuality: Between Desire and Sin

Fâzıl's works, particularly Hûbân-nâme and Çengi-nâme, are rich in material related to sexuality, often conveyed through innuendos and the slang of his era. While these topics warrant separate, detailed studies, this section outlines Fâzıl's general views on sexuality as reflected in his writings.

Fâzıl distinguishes sharply between love and sexuality. In the introduction to Defter-i Aşk, he illustrates how sexual fulfilment can extinguish love through a story. In this tale, a man deeply in love with another suffers greatly in longing. When their desire is fulfilled, however, the love abruptly ends. Fâzıl condemns this, asserting that a love dependent on physical gratification should be considered mere fornication. In his view, this represents a new form of love driven purely by carnal desire, which he critiques sharply:

What I knew of the custom of lovers before

Was that the spark of love resided in the chest.

Now that state has changed;

The love of people today resides in the male organ.

May God not make us part of that group,

But rather among those who are mindful of fear.

Let us not fall into that path from now on;

And if we have before, let us repent a thousand times over.

Bildigim ‘âdet-i ‘uşşâk evvel

Sînedir bârika-i ‘aşka mahal

Şimdi ol dâ’iye tagyîrdedir

‘Aşk-ı ebnâ-yı zamân kîrdedir

Bizi Hakk itmeye ol tâ’ifeden

Eyleye tâ’ife-i hâ’ifeden

Bad ez-în düşmeyelim ol savbe

Sabıken düşdük ise sad tevbe

(Kuru 2005: 496)

It is noteworthy that the last couplet gives the impression that Fâzıl himself may have fallen into this trap at some point. Furthermore, there are indications in some of the couplets in his Dîvân (Beyhan 2021: 341) that he occasionally succumbed to his desires and later regretted it. In Çengi-nâme, where he discusses male dancers, Fâzıl also acknowledges the danger of his interest in men:

May God save us from this perilous state,

And cleanse our hearts of this stain.

Bizi Hakk kurtara bu mehlekeden

Pâk ide sînemizi bu lekeden

(Keskin 2013: 353)

Similarly, in some of the couplets in his Dîvân (Beyhan 2021: 344), Fâzıl vows to look upon beautiful young men with contemplation rather than lust. He allows himself to kiss them, but resolves not to engage in sexual relations. Furthermore, in Defter-i Aşk, where Fâzıl recounts the men he loved, he refrains from describing any sexual relations with them. His words strongly suggest that these loves were platonic.

In the same work, Fâzıl's fear of the fate of the people of Lot reflects his association of love for men with sin, leaving him torn between his faith and his attraction to men. However, his negative views on sexuality are not limited to religious prohibitions against homosexuality. For instance, in Defter-i Aşk (Kuru 2005: 505), he describes how his gypsy lover became weak and ill after marrying and engaging in regular sexual relations.

Similarly, in Zenân-nâme (Öztürk 2012: 148–149), Fâzıl discusses the harm caused by excessive sexual activity, noting that it weakens the body, drains vitality, damages eyesight, leads to illness, and accelerates aging. He recounts how Lokman,²⁴ when asked by his son about the ideal frequency of sexual relations, replied that he did not permit intercourse even once a week, instead suggesting that once a year would be better. When the son protested that once a year was too infrequent, Lokman reluctantly conceded to once a month.

Despite his negative views, Fâzıl frequently addresses sexual matters in his works. In Çengi-nâme, he explores male dancers involved in sexual relations with other men, including those engaging in such acts for money. In this work (Keskin 2013: 366), he even criticizes a conservative dancer named Pandeli, arguing that conservatism is ill-suited for a male dancer.

In Hûbân-nâme Fâzıl recounts anecdotes of men involved in prostitution, such as a miller's son from Kufa who begins prostituting himself in Baghdad (Enderunlu Fâzıl 1837: 29), and men in Tripoli who engage in such acts for ten coins (Enderunlu Fâzıl 1793: 35a). In addition to same-sex relations, Fâzıl comments on heterosexual relations and female prostitutes, often relying on hearsay. For instance, he claims that Abyssinian women remain virgins even after intercourse and childbirth, attributing this to their unique physiology, and noting that he heard this from others (Öztürk 2002: 94).

In Zenân-nâme (Öztürk 2002), Fâzıl describes practices attributed to prostitutes from various regions. He claims Egyptian prostitutes lie face down, placing one full and one empty cup on their buttocks, then skilfully move their hips to make the cups switch places. He also comments on Algerian and Tunisian prostitutes, Damascene women engaging in sexual relations during pilgrimage and harvest seasons, Aleppine prostitutes wearing clothing adorned with genital motifs, and Moroccan women traveling to Spain for such purposes. Regarding Russian women, he criticizes their promiscuity, engaging in sex during pregnancy or menstruation, and the prevalence of prostitution, occasionally noting that some of this information was relayed to him by others. In a concluding section of Zenân-nâme, he also references obscene poetry written by women on the waistbands of their trousers.

Although Hûbân-nâme primarily focuses on men, the section on Egypt includes details about Egyptian prostitutes (Enderunlu Fâzıl 1793: 14), highlighting Fâzıl's focus on women he considers ‘morally corrupt’ or ‘prostitutes’.

Despite his discomfort with his male lover's attraction to women, Fâzıl offers advice on navigating sexual relations with women in Zenân-nâme. He cautions against visiting ‘famous’ women and advises his lover to visit a woman's house only at night if he must.

Conclusion

Enderunlu Fâzıl is a colourful figure in eighteenth-century Turkish poetry, known for his innovative approach to literature. Beyond their literary value, his works offer significant material for gender studies, sociology, and cultural history. Fâzıl's views on gender are particularly evident in Hûbân-nâme and Zenân-nâme, where he explores the physical, moral, and temperamental traits of men and women from diverse ethnic backgrounds. His upbringing in Safed, experiences in the multi-ethnic Enderun, and travels across the empire shaped his ability to craft these comparative works.

While he saw Hûbân-nâme and Zenân-nâme as companion pieces, they reflect starkly different perspectives. Hûbân-nâme focuses on men, whom Fâzıl admired and understood, whereas Zenân-nâme was written reluctantly under his lover's pressure. Writing about women, who did not attract him, was challenging for Fâzıl, especially as he feared his lover might turn fully toward women, marry, and leave him. These tensions, combined with his negative views of women, contributed to the critical tone of Zenân-nâme. By contrast, his familiarity with men allowed him to provide detailed, firsthand insights, while his depictions of women, especially regarding female sexuality, often relied on hearsay.

Both works candidly portray traits admired and criticized in both genders while offering insights into the era's ideals of beauty. Fair skin, black hair and eyes, red cheeks, and tall stature were seen as attractive in both sexes, while excessive thinness, noticeable weight, and sallow complexions were not. Graceful movement, polite speech, and elegant dress were praised universally, though in women, moral conduct and chastity were emphasized more heavily.

Çengi-nâme and Defter-i Aşk further enrich Fâzıl's portrayal of men from diverse social backgrounds, with traces of these works also appearing in his Dîvân. A comparative analysis of the poems in the Dîvân alongside his other works could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the poet's life and perspectives. Additionally, his works warrant deeper, interdisciplinary exploration to fully uncover their sociological and literary significance.