On Transmediality and Girlhood

In light of their propensity to adapt to different platforms, genres, and formats, comics and graphic narratives more generally have been recognized almost unanimously by critics and mediologists as a porous, polymorphous medium (Di Paola 2019). Their susceptibility to remediation is testified to by the productive intermedial and transmedial relationships that comics entertain notoriously with other sectors of the cultural industry, the most notorious being film, TV series, and video games production (Rippl and Etter 2013; Weaver 2013). This is coupled with the malleability and capacity of comics to regenerate themselves following new trends or technological transformations. Consider, for example, the graphic novel format that some scholars even regard as a new medium (Baetens and Frey 2014), or the recent and now quickly expanding practices related to the production of digital comics that continually “give birth to novel, multifaceted imaginaries and narratives capable of freely exploring new ways of experiencing emotions, relationships, sexualities and identities” (Busi Rizzi et al. 2023: 5). These characteristics contribute significantly to the mythopoetic potential of the medium or, to put it differently, to its talent in creating symbolic systems and cultural imaginaries. It is not a coincidence that graphic narratives have certainly influenced our idea and perception of girlhood by shaping storyworlds and iconic characters that have lived through different media and platforms from Little Orphan Annie by Harold Gray (1924–2010) to Nancy, a comics series started by Ernie Bushmiller in 1938⁴ and continued by other authors, with Olivia Jaimes currently taking the helm, from Mafalda by Quino (1964–1973) to Bishōjo senshi Sailor Moon by Naoko Takeuchi [Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon, 1991–1997], and from Hilda by Luke Pearson⁵ (2010–2019) to Marvel Comics's Kamala Khan. The latest incarnation of Ms. Marvel, created by editors Sana Amanat and Stephen Wacker, featured in the eponymous publication (2014–2015) with stories written by G. Willow Wilson.⁶ Our focus on the interconnections between the transmediality of comics and girlhood is twofold. On one hand, we aimed to gather contributions that deepen scholarly knowledge on the transmedial practices afforded by comics when it comes to the representation of girls. On the other, we wished to propose an academic discussion on the conceptual interconnections between comics and the construction of girlhood through the paradigm of transmediality. Catherine Driscoll (2002) associates girlhood with “an idea of mobility preceding the fixity of womanhood” (47). Then more than a decade later, Heather Warren-Crow (2014) cleverly identifies a correlation between girlhood and the principles and practices of plasticity or malleability that dominate the production and circulation of content in our contemporary mediascapes. As suggested by Warren-Crow herself, whose book is presented in an online presentation⁷ as a discussion of “girlish transformation [as a] widespread condition of mediation” (2014: n.p.), girlhood and transmediality have a lot to share. Given this, we believe that accounting for the associations between the aforementioned theories on girlhood and scholarly reflections on the adaptability of comics proves conceptually and methodologically fruitful for research on comics, girlhood, and transmediality.

On Transnationality and Girlhood

Recent intellectual property and consumption studies (Bellido and Bowrey 2022), childhood studies (Appel et al. 2023; Chen 2019; Heimermann and Tullis 2017) and periodical studies (Demoor et al. 2023) demonstrate increasingly a transnational turn. While the histories of comics have tended to be written according to national or linguistic traditions, focusing mainly on the hegemonic fields of American, Japanese, and Franco-Belgian cultures, recent scholarship has highlighted the crucial role that transnational exchanges play in the production and circulation of comics-related material (Brienza 2016; Denson et al. 2014; Gandolfo and Turnes 2019; Wannamaker and Abate 2012). In this special issue we contribute to the transnational approach to comics by delving into the transnational dimension of comics that helps shape our collective notion of girlhood. By analyzing the ways in which comics publishers and their content have interacted with and inspired each other across national borders, the scholarly interventions that mark this special issue account for the “multidirectional flows of peoples, ideas and goods” that gave Shelley Fisher Fishkin (2009: 1) a reason to study American culture from a transnational perspective. Therefore, we include articles that demonstrate how engagement with other cultural and national contexts enriches the panorama of North American comics, one of the most prolific globally. At the same time, we attempt to give visibility and critical recognition to comics productions that originated outside the North American and Anglophone milieu by discussing Vietnamese, Italian, Danish, Portuguese, and German comics from a transnational perspective. Rather than defining each comic as a national phenomenon, we encouraged the search for unique interrelations that transcend a rigidly Anglo-American or global North interpretation of girlhood.

Comics as Transtexts Promoting Transmedial and Transnational Girlhood

We look at transmediality and transnationalism as two specific areas of convergence that allow us to explore contemporary and past productions and receptions of graphic narratives as a connected system in which girlhood is constructed, negotiated, and constantly re-shaped. The heading above draws on and adapts the idea of the “transtext,” a concept developed by Benjamin W. L. Derhy Kirtz and Mélanie Bourdaa (2016: vii–xi) that expanded on Henry Jenkins's well-known concept of “transmedia storytelling” (2006: 93) by emphasizing the active role of readers, audiences, and fans in shaping storyworlds. We believe that the effort to adapt our scholarly analysis to the constantly shifting practices of contemporary media production and consumption accounts for the tendency to surpass media boundaries as well as the current inclinations to disregard the limitations imposed by national frontiers in the creation and circulation of cultural products in the comics form and beyond. In this issue, we aim to update scholarly understanding of the crucial role that comics play in facilitating the creation and circulation of transmedia and transnational visions of girlhood.

We open this special issue with Mel Gibson's contribution in which she explores the transmedia franchise The Tea Dragon Society. Originating from an independent webcomic by New Zealand creator Kay O'Neill (2016), The Tea Dragon Society stands as one of the most notable examples of contemporary independent comics and graphic novels circulating in the transnational Anglophone world that feature girl characters and are aimed at readers aged 8 to 12. Gibson's analysis explores the production, audience engagement, and content of the work in examining how readers interact with the characters and story not only through the webcomic but also through related merchandising, graphic novels, and card games. This web of transmedia practices leads to a deeply empathetic connection with the audience. Gibson also highlights how the franchise portrays girlhood as fluid and ever-expanding, reflecting its distinctive approach to representation.

Then, in the next article, Lan Dong shifts the focus toward transnationalism in her discussion of Malaka Gharib's award-winning graphic memoirs, I Was Their American Dream and It Won't Always Be Like This. Born in California to immigrant parents from the Philippines and Egypt, Gharib navigates the challenges of reconciling diverse cultures and contrasting concepts of girlhood shaped by mainstream media and societal expectations. Dong's insightful analysis underscores how Gharib's work deconstructs the notion of a singular overarching American Dream. Through a close reading of the texts, Dong highlights how both the textual narrative and the visual imagery reflect the power of the comic medium in representing layered and nuanced girlhood identities.

Integrating themes from both transmedia and transnational contexts, Simona Di Martino then explores the W.I.T.C.H. series, a Disney Italia production that achieved international success through its global export. Combining European comic traditions with manga influences, W.I.T.C.H. revolutionized the Italian market for girls’ comics in 2001. Di Martino's analysis reveals that its impact extends beyond the depiction of empowered adolescent girls and their themes of friendship and female solidarity. The series is notable for its hybridization of graphic styles and narratives, as well as its transmedia approach that extends the story from print to various other media. Di Martino examines specifically the print medium, highlighting how the magazine's editors employed engagement techniques such as surveys, quizzes, problem pages, letters, and diary-like entries in building communities of girls who share mutual interests.

In her analysis of Saving Sorya and Saving H'Non Brianna Anderson explores two specific yet recurring themes in the production and promotion of contemporary comics by connecting ninth art,⁸ the representation of girlhood, and global challenges. Anderson highlights the growing presence of girls in contemporary environmental movements, a trend that has made its way into comics as well but focuses on the work of Vietnamese authors, Trang Nguyễn and Jeet Zdũng, whose comics challenge individualistic narratives in favor of supporting collective eco-activism. Chang, the young conservationist protagonist represents a form of activism rooted in cooperation, interspecies collaboration, and empathy in its embodying of an ecofeminist ethic of care. Anderson combines ecocriticism with a reader-focused analysis, explaining how comics can communicate the importance of girls’ rights, animal welfare, and environmental stewardship to young audiences.

Then Katlin Marisol Sweeney-Romero examines the role of self-mediation in the production and digital promotion of Latina comic artists. In focusing on Chicana artist Daisy Ruiz, also known as Draizys, and her autobiographical work Gordita: Built Like This (2023), Sweeney-Romero's analysis extends beyond the comic itself to consider the artist's presence on social media platforms such as Instagram and TikTok. These platforms serve as paratextual elements essential for a fuller understanding of Draizys's work. Sweeney-Romero explores how Draizys portrays the intricate relationship between young teenage girls and their online representation, blending print and digital media in an autobiographical narrative that reimagines representations of girlhood in her community.

The final article is a contribution from Charlotte J. Fabricius, who, through her analysis of the Danish publishing house Forlaget Cobolt, shifts the focus from individual works to industry-wide practices, thus expanding our understanding of comics production and reception beyond the binary framework of gender representation. Fabricius integrates an examination of Cobolt's catalogue and history with semi-structured interviews conducted with three employees of the publishing house. She underscores the critical role that publishers, alongside other key professionals like translators, play in the adaptation and dissemination of comics across diverse markets. By highlighting the significance of linguistic and cultural contexts in both production and reception, Fabricius offers a compelling perspective on the broader dynamics of the publishing industry that can be valuable across different national contexts.

Following these full-length articles, we conclude this special issue with three contributions designed to showcase the richness and dynamism of the theme of girlhood and the field of comics studies that benefits from a multidisciplinary approach. Nicoletta Mandolini's interview with Portuguese artist Joana Estrela places the author at the forefront in exploring the cultural references that have influenced Estrela's works, such as Os vestidos do Tiago [James's Dresses] and Pardalita—two crucial examples in the process of de-essentializing and queering of girlhood in contemporary graphic narratives.

This is followed by the visual essay “Schrödinger's Grrrl” by Ana Matilde Sousa, a Portuguese researcher, illustrator, and comic artist known by the pen name Hetamoé. Her manga-inspired style highlights the significant and ongoing transnational influences that have shaped the imagery of (former) girls. Hetamoé begins with the assertion that “girlhood is in constant flux,” thus offering a thoughtful reminder of the complex and evolving nature of the concept of girlhood as represented through various social norms, pixels, and comic pages.

In ending the issue, we shift the focus back to the reader in Eva Van de Wiele's review of the German comic series Nika, Lotte, Mangold! by Thomas Wellmann. Van de Wiele examines both the scholarly perspective on girlhood comics and the original audience—the children who are the intended readers of his comics, a series with an international, cross-generational, and inter-gendered appeal.

In curating this selection of articles, our aim was to provide a comprehensive depiction of the diverse themes, approaches, and influences reflected both in the works analyzed and in the authors’ methodologies. The resulting panorama illustrates the multifaceted nature of contemporary comics studies on girlhood as well as the evolving landscape of comics production itself—ranging from mainstream projects produced by major media companies to independent comics, and from children's publications to works crafted for the graphic novel market.