This article highlights issues related to the challenges of gender equality in Ukraine. Its conceptualization and the writing process started before the full-scale Russian invasion in February 2022. At first, we aimed to explore the historical peculiarities of gender issues, provide an overview of general concepts of gender, feminism, and transgenderism, and highlight certain relevant events and practices in Ukraine before the start of military action. However, the dramatic events of February 2022 had a large impact on the writing process. On the one hand, some parts of the research that had been completed seemed less relevant in light of the dramatic situation. On the other hand, the dramatic changes that occurred made it necessary to include them in our argumentation. Gathering data, resources, and reports, and communicating and collaborating with colleagues in Ukraine and with the IJSQ editorial board became very difficult, and sometimes even impossible. Nevertheless, we decided—to the extent possible within these constraints—to continue updating and further working on the article. Some parts of the article concerning the military situation are based on (collective) impressions and may not be fully supported by scientific research, sources, and facts. We, as authors, apologize for these scientific shortcomings.
The main challenges and gender issues discussed in this article pertain to methods of gender identification, sexuality, gender binarism, discrimination, and gender (in)equality. In Ukraine, like in most countries around the world, there is a long history associated with achieving gender equality. We explore these issues as one of the important cornerstones of human civilization inextricably linked to such important principles of social quality as social justice, dignity, and equal rights. Gender challenges are directly linked to the social quality of everyday life circumstances. The key point in the majority of our arguments in this article is devoted to gender inequality. We define gender inequality as a situation in which people who identify as male, female, or nonbinary do not have equal rights and opportunities to realize their own abilities and potential (Abbott et al. 2016: 13–15). Globally, the most pressing and dominant challenge is the inequality of women compared to men.
Gender inequality issues are related to certain aspects of constitutional human rights. An integral duty of a civilized society is ensuring equal rights and opportunities for all citizens regardless of gender, in accordance with modern universal cultural standards. Equal rights and opportunities are a priority and should be guaranteed at the legislative level through the codification of organizational and legal structures. Gender permeates all spheres of public life without exception. In this article, as mentioned above, we focus mainly on inequalities concerning women. Equality in practice is realized through the creation of equal opportunities for both men and women in the sociopolitical, socioeconomic, sociocultural, legal, and other areas in which social quality is maintained and developed (Novakova 2017)—for example, through creating conditions where motherhood and childcare responsibilities can be combined with work outside the home, maternity support, and paid leave for mothers or pregnant women. The article focuses on Ukraine, on legislation, other official codifications, and policies that are in one way or another related to gender issues.
The research begins with a brief description of the the core concepts and the methodology of the article. The next section highlights the most relevant aspects of the gender situation in Ukraine. The data analysis, discussion, and reflections are presented in two distinct parts: (1) before the full-scale invasion in February 2022 (with attention also paid to the impact of COVID-19); and (2) the gender situation in the context of the ongoing war. In the last section, we provide our conclusion and our recommendations for ensuring gender equality in policy and practice in the future in Ukraine. The forthcoming measures of rebuilding all that was—and still is being—damaged in the country in a hopefully approaching postwar recovery period should incorporate these recommendations concerning gender.
Concepts and Methodology
The term “gender” was first used by the psychoanalyst and sociologist Robert Stoller in 1968. He points out that gender is built on the conceptualization of sex differences. Women and men are assigned certain socially constructed images of “femininity” and “masculinity.” The difference between these two sets of characteristics significantly contributes to the formation of gender identity. Femininity is endowed with traits such as sensitivity, emotionality, weakness, and dependence. Masculinity, in the traditional binary gender paradigm, is associated with strength, endurance, bravery, power, and success.
Sexuality and gender are two different concepts. “Sexuality” is used to refer to the (genetically determined) biological differences between the female and male bodies. Sexual characteristics are expressed in the different functions of women and men in the reproductive process. Gender is a general assessment in society of the peculiarities of women's and men's behavior, the attitudes and roles of women and men, their ways of thinking, and the nature of their value systems and lives. Gender is a symbolic system constructed by culture. Gender differences are acquired. They evolve in biographical and collective processes of development and are shaped by sociopolitical, socioeconomic, and sociocultural contexts of life. These societal contexts are formed in and by communities, social institutions, governmental organizations, and other venues, expressing and fixing contemporary notions of gender (Skoryk et al. 2004).
The “gender binary” is a culturally constructed distinction between women and men. In a gender binary society, people are expected to behave in accordance with clearly defined gender roles. Certain aspects of a person's expression or restrictions on their actions and behavior are largely not a matter of choice. They are dictated by cultural norms or imposed, and they pertain, for example, to clothing styles, societal roles, interpersonal behavior, and career choices. Binary gender roles affect certain aspects of self-expression or life experience. The sharp demarcation between femininity and masculinity is not based on clear natural biological patterns and is not a universal reality. This binary construct is shaped by society and often depends on cultural or political contexts. Valerie Bryson emphasizes this point: “The majority of existing differences between men and women are a social problem based on gender, not on inherent sex characteristics” (2011: p. 77). She argues that the distinctions between women and men are not determined by innate behavior but by cultural perceptions in society.
In this research, we harmoniously combine several methodological approaches, which allows us to obtain robust scientific knowledge on various gender issues in Ukraine. We pay particular attention to the analysis of formal codifications related to gender, such as various legal aspects pertaining to gender equality and the protection of fundamental human rights. The robust picture we present contains insights into various important gender issues, such as the historical evolution and the conceptualization of gender, how gender manifests itself in society, various ethical aspects related to gender inequality, and several approaches to achieving equality between the sexes. The analytico-historical part of our study includes a discussion of developments related to the biological gender evidence of the sexual binary, an assessment of historical processes that increase public awareness and understanding of relations between men and women, and an examination of issues of gender inequality.
We used quantitative and qualitative analyses taken from scientific literature and a large number of other official sources to create a realistic picture that should be understood in both social and historical contexts. Because of the chaotic situation in the durante bello period in Ukraine, systematic empirical research has been hard to achieve. Many propositions of gender issues therefore had to be based on the collection of solid impressions. Data on the correlation between specific societal characteristics and gender indicate the existence of differences in approaches between men and women—for example with regard to power relations, the construction of distinct roles, specific family relationships, issues related to employment and professional activities, and, last but not least, gender issues under war conditions. Our composition of approaches allows for a systematic overview of four main indicators of gender inequality in the prewar period, namely, (1) political representation; (2) economic participation; (3) educational participation; and (4) (poor) health outcomes. We pay specific attention to the effects of the accumulation of such gender inequalities and differences among people (e.g., in ethical, cultural, and economic terms). We have made attempts to use predictive methods to anticipate the development of gender issues in the future, in particular in the postwar reconstruction period. Ethical criteria and aspects such as dignity, social justice, and human rights are brought to bear on moral assessments of particular situations of gender inequality or discrimination.
Concerning the prewar era, we systematically analyze and present patterns of gender mainly through the prism of the procedural framework of social quality. As explained above, this has not been possible for the durante bello period. The social quality scientific framework, as rightly pointed out by Zuzana Novakova, distinguishes four dimensions (spheres) of societal life. The social quality of people's everyday life is (re)produced in societal processes in these four dimensions: the (1) sociopolitical/legal; (2) socioeconomic/financial; (3) sociocultural/welfare; and (4) socioecological dimensions (Novakova 2017). In our research, we will focus in detail on the first three, as they are the most relevant for the substance of our study.
The Gender Situation in Ukraine before the Full-Scale Russian Invasion
Gender (in)equality and feminism in Ukraine have developed somewhat differently than in Western countries. Their content and form, to some extent, have depended on specific radically changing characteristics of the socioeconomic, sociopolitical, and sociocultural contexts that determined and shaped the societal patterns in Ukraine. In our research, we focus on the prewar period, which covers 24 August 1991 to 22 February 2022 (the period from the declaration of independence and the formation of a sovereign Ukraine until the full-scale invasion of the Russian Federation). Many gender peculiarities of this period emerged as a reaction to the gender stereotypes of the time when Ukraine was part of the Soviet Union. The latter will only be considered as an introduction to our discussion of the prewar situation of gender in Ukraine. The prewar period of Ukraine began after the fall of the communist regime and the proclamation of Ukraine's independence on 24 August 1991. The immediate postindependence period saw many socioeconomic and sociocultural changes alongside drastic sociopolitical transformations. In February 2022, our entire society, including the prevailing gender patterns, was completely turned upside down by the military invasion of the Russian Federation. In the present study, as a sudden emerging additional chapter we will highlight also aspects of the gender situation that has arisen during the ongoing war. We will pay attention to striking gender issues that have arisen or intensified in the current crisis situation.
During the time when Ukraine was part of the Soviet Union, prevailing cultural patterns and norms were imposed by the communist system. Women were forced to work hard and accept jobs outside their homes. At the same time, their workload and responsibilities at home did not decrease. Men still traditionally placed the burden of caring for children, family, and household on women. Thus, a double burden was placed on women's fragile shoulders. Gender inequality and discrimination were observed throughout the Soviet Union, including in Ukrainian society (Pahiria 2012). After independence, things began to change. Gender issues in Ukraine became subject to careful national and international critical discussion, research, and monitoring. Below, we provide a general overview of the gender situation and of the strategies and policies aimed at overcoming gender inequality. Additionally, we pay attention to the gap between policy and practice.
Sociopolitical and Legal Dimension
The Global Gender Gap Report of the World Economic Forum ranks countries on a gender scale that is based on four indicators of inequality between men and women: (1) economic participation; (2) education; (3) political representation; and (4) health. In Table 1, some of the results of the 2022 report are presented. According to the overall score, Ukraine held 81st place among 156 countries. The lowest score (100th place) for Ukraine appears to be regarding the political representation (inclusion) of women (World Economic Forum 2022):
Data for Ukraine from the Global Gender Gap Report 2022. Source: World Economic Forum 2022.
| Characteristic | Ukraine |
|---|---|
| Place (among 156 countries studied) | 81 |
| The overall value of the global gender gap index (0.00—inequality; 1.00—equality) | 0.707 |
| Economic participation (place / value) | 62 / 0.710 |
| Education level (place / value) | 53 / 0.995 |
| Empowerment (place / importance) | 100 / 0.145 |
| Health and survival (place / value) | 37 / 0.978 |
In Ukraine in particular, policies have been developed aiming at ensuring the rights of women in general and their right to political participation. The Constitution (Article 36,37,37) enshrines and guarantees equal voting rights for all citizens of the state from the age of eighteen. Gender quotas are used in politics as a mechanism to ensure gender equality.1 A complex network of informal political, economic and cultural barriers in Ukraine traditionally prevents women from fully participating in public life, for example in politics. In the gender hierarchy that underpins traditional political practice, men are seen as the decisive public representation of humanity (Engeli and Mazur 2018). This is a rather painful and sensitive barrier to gender equality. In order to succeed, or to gain political voice and autonomy, women must accept and act in accordance with the dominant male model. This is what famous feminists meant when they argued that a specific female culture is justified (Stoller, 2005).
Practices though in many societies clearly illustrate the positive impact of women's involvement in politics. According to Tamara Martsenyuk's (2006) report, as the Scandinavian countries’ experience shows, there is a direct correlation between a high level of women's participation in political life and economic prosperity. Laws related to women's interests and those concerning child welfare see significant advancements due to the increased representation of women in political decision-making in the Scandinavian countries. Morten Enberg, Head of the Election and Governance Project and Coordinator of various projects of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) in Ukraine, pointed out that Sweden's experience should be taken into account to understand efforts aimed at overcoming gender inequality in politics (Martsenyuk 2006).
In Ukraine, gender equality is legally enshrined in the Constitution and a number of other legal acts. However, the formal enshrinement of political and other rights is difficult to put into practice in daily life. Women have to spend a lot of time caring for children and managing households. In turn, this means that they wind up spending much less time on paid work than their male counterparts. Those who care for others are financially vulnerable. As a result, they have much less political weight as citizens. Women and men are formally equal in the sociopolitical and legal sense. Therefore, women may theoretically compete with men in various societal spheres, but they often have to struggle to realize their rights.
Ukraine has ratified a number of international legal treaties, conventions, and agreements that enshrine fundamental human and civil rights and gender equality. Many of these were signed during the second half of the twentieth century and include the Convention on Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of Equal Value of 19512 and the Convention on Equal Treatment and Equal Opportunities for Working Men and Women: Workers with Family Functions of 1981.3 Additionally, in Ukraine, a series of laws and legal acts have been adopted to establish and guarantee gender equality. Article 24 of the Ukrainian Constitution specifically addresses the equality of rights between women and men.4
The legal aspects of gender equality and its legislative enforcement were the subject of a special research project providing a detailed analysis of legislation ensuring and guaranteeing gender equality in Ukraine (Protosavitska 2023). It is worth noting that in 2005 the Law on Ensuring Equal Rights and Opportunities for Women and Men was adopted by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine.5 Mechanisms for ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women and men are described and established therein and should prohibit discrimination based on sex in Ukraine. The control over and observance of equal rights and opportunities for women and men in Ukraine is carried out in accordance with the Law on the Ukrainian Parliament Commissioner for Human Rights.6 A number of legal documents have been amended to ensure gender equality and nondiscrimination on the basis of sex. For example, in 2008 the Labor Code was amended to provide that equal rights for both men and women must be guaranteed and ensured when concluding collective bargaining agreements at work.7 In 2012, the Law on the Principles of Preventing and Combating Discrimination in Ukraine was adopted (Verkhovna Rada 2012). This law prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender.
In summary, it should be noted that the state policy in Ukraine regarding the provision of equal rights and opportunities explicitly aims to also achieve gender equality in various ways. This includes countering gender-based violence, preventing and eliminating sex-based discrimination, ensuring equal opportunities for combining professional activities and family responsibilities, promoting tolerance and a culture of gender equality among the population, and ensuring equal participation of men and women in decision-making processes (Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine 2018). The principle of gender equality has permeated various spheres of legislation and public life, thereby elevating the level of the country's legal culture. It has evolved not only as a distinct aspect of the “rule of law” but also as a characteristic of “legal culture” (Kachur et al. 2020). During the prewar period, Ukraine established a robust legal framework that aimed to ensure equal rights and opportunities for women and men. This framework to a certain extent was successfully put into practice, though as we see below much work needs to be done to make it into a behavioral guide in all societal spheres.
Socioeconomic and Financial Dimension
In the socioeconomic dimension, there are many societal processes conditions that express considerable gender (in)equality in Ukraine. Soe 68.9 percent of women and 79.2 percent of men are economically active in the Ukrainian labor market (State Statistics Service of Ukraine 2020). Similar statistics have been observed in many European Union countries. However, these figures though do not only uncover the negative aspects of gender (in)equality. Many women are often forced to leave paid employment because they are forced to do unpaid domestic work (FAO 2021). In Ukraine, the labor market is stratified for both men and women. It should be noted that in the country there exists vertical segregation and a hierarchy of positions (Kozin et al. 2020). The proportion of men holding managerial positions is significantly higher compared to women. On the contrary, the proportion of women is much higher in clerical and support roles. As for the level of wages, women receive only 25 percent of the wages that men earn (State Statistics Service of Ukraine 2020). National Ukrainian strategies to address the gender pay gap recognize the role of gender stereotypes in shaping the socioeconomic opportunities for women. For example, they define what work should be performed by both women and men, and how unpaid household work can be distributed between men and women.
In the socioeconomic dimension, significant importance is given to the availability of resources and their utilization opportunities. In Ukraine, resource distribution profoundly affects other dimensions. “Time available for spending” is considered a resource with great potential. Time is a scarce resource that is unevenly distributed between men and women, as noted by Bryson (2011). Inequality in having free time condemns many women to economic dependence, exploitation, vulnerability, and domestic violence (Bryson 2011). Due to the lack of time, women find it hard to engage in civic activities and gain their own political voice. Considering this situation, gender policy should challenge and reject the current distribution of paid and unpaid work, along with the distribution of leisure time. According to Bryson, the gender movement should advocate for the idea that unpaid work, such as caregiving, must be properly valued and rewarded, as it is of paramount importance for societal well-being. Studies of gender equality reveal that in Ukraine gender inequality in practice still is evident, not only in the underrepresentation of women in politics but also in labor force participation indicators (Samilyk et al. 2021). This gap may, for instance, also be observed in the healthcare and educational sectors.
In view of this situation, ensuring and guaranteeing gender equality and nondiscrimination in all spheres is a key to the prosperity, well-being, and harmonious humanist development of contemporary Ukraine—and all progressive societies. One of the essential steps needed to achieve this result is ensuring equal rights and opportunities for men and women at the legislative level by eliminating discrimination on the basis of sex and by other means as well.
In Ukraine, as well as in other countries of the world, men and women work in various industries in the cultural, healthcare, economic, political, legal, and other spheres. Regardless of gender, they play an important role in the management of natural resources and in the production of a wide variety of products. Therefore, ensuring gender equality and rights in all spheres of life is the key to economic prosperity and the harmonious development of any progressive society. This may be achieved by legally ensuring equal rights and opportunities for men and women, eliminating gender discrimination, and applying a number of special measures to ensure those equal rights and opportunities exist in practice.
Sociocultural and Welfare Dimension
It should be emphasized that also a significant gender gap exists in the sociocultural and welfare dimension, where the social quality of (inter)personal daily life takes shape. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, quarantine measures significantly changed the situation and daily life of many women, both in Ukraine and around the world. The COVID-19 pandemic and its consequences have affected all spheres of human life, including the sociocultural dimension (Nijhuis and Van der Maesen 2021). Manifestations of the pandemic exacerbated many problems of gender (in)equality. Many women in Ukraine were forced to perform all kinds of care and housework during the quarantine. This burden has fallen on their shoulders, while men have withdrawn from doing (women's) work. Furthermore, women make up the majority of the junior medical staff. During active outbreaks of the pandemic, this category of female medical worker was exposed to a double risk of infection, being vulnerable both at work and at home. Sana Malik and Khansa Naeem (2020) conclude that, according to statistics, the number of female healthcare workers infected with COVID-19 was several times higher than that of male healthcare workers. They also conclude that the impact on women and men in their daily activities was quite different.
Moreover, the implementation of pandemic prevention measures, such as physical distancing and isolation, increased the risk of violence against and exploitation of women (UN-Women 2022). One of the most invasive manifestations of gender inequality, with profound implications for the well-being of women, is violence. Considering this, Ukraine has implemented a range of measures to counter gender-based violence. Gender-based violence takes varying forms, as there exists physical, sexual, economic, and psychological violence. According to the data from the Ukrainian national “hotline,”8 domestic violence is the most prevalent form of violence against women. Approximately 22 percent of women aged 15 to 50 experience at least one form of physical or sexual violence (FAO 2021).
The implementation of measures to combat COVID-19 had economic consequences, as they led to limited work opportunities and thus to a decrease in well-being. It has been repeatedly emphasized in a number of scientific studies (Nijhuis and Van der Maesen 2021). Additionally, quarantine restrictions involved the closure of schools and kindergartens. The care of children forced to stay at home during the quarantine placed an additional burden on women, thereby increasing the amount of unpaid caregiving and domestic work (Ukrainian Women's Fund 2021). During the pandemic period in Ukraine, there was an increase in the number of women who suffered from psychological and physical violence. The COVID-19 pandemic and its consequences became a catalyst for supporting women and implementing active gender policies worldwide in 2020–2021. However, S. Nanthini and Tamara Nair's research (2020) indicates that in Ukraine the pandemic, on the contrary, heightened the risk of eroding significant progress that women had gradually achieved in the employment sphere over the decades preceding it.
In many contemporary progressive liberal societies, most attention is paid to gender inequality as it pertains to the disadvantages faced by women. In the pursuit of equality for women, many have overlooked discrimination against men, which is now slowly becoming an issue to pay attention to. Most often, women are discriminated against in the professional and public spheres. Men, though, tend to be discriminated against in the private sphere. In traditional societies, women are responsible for childcare and household chores. If men try to exercise their right to care for their children, this may provoke opposition from certain state institutions. In Ukraine, there are few hospitals with specially equipped rooms where a father can stay with his sick child. Another example is the establishment of guardianship over a child. In Ukraine, no normative legal act provides for established privileges that give women preferential rights to children. In the vast majority of cases, the court decides in favor of the mother, and children stay with her after divorce. Additionally, men may face discrimination when complying with labor legislation. According to the law, women who have two or more children under the age of 15 or a disabled child have the right to take parental leave. Such leave is not provided for fathers. As for criminal legislation, a woman's pregnancy is considered a mitigating circumstance in issuing a guilty verdict. Furthermore, manifestations of discrimination against men occur in certain professions where women typically dominate. In Ukraine, it is difficult for men to find employment as primary school teachers, kindergarten educators, or cleaners. Traditionally, these roles are considered to be exclusively for women, and men are not allowed to hold them.
Summarizing the above-presented information one may conclude that on the eve of the full-scale invasion by the Russian Army Ukraine had a strong political and policy agenda to address a significant number of gender inequalities. Significant strides had been taken in creating a robust legislative framework that ensures equal rights and opportunities for men and women in Ukraine. Moreover, Ukraine had ratified a series of international normative legal acts related to gender equality, the promotion and realization of fundamental rights and freedoms for both women and men, and the prevention of discrimination. The same applies to many societal changes in practice in the socioeconomic, sociopolitical, sociocultural, and social dimensions.
After the full-scale military invasion of the Russian Federation into Ukraine in February 2022, everything was completely turned upside down. Because of the dramatic consequences of the war, endeavors to follow up on the existing gender policies and to promote gender equality in Ukraine were mostly put to an end. During the start of the war, other gender patterns and issues emerged, which were induced by the necessity to defend the country and to cope with the enormous destruction that was being inflicted upon the Ukrainian people, their society, their economy, their infrastructure, and their villages and cities.
Gender Situation during the Full-Scale Russian Invasion
The morning of 24 February 2022 will forever be etched in the memory of Ukrainians as one of the most terrible days in their nation's history. On that day, millions of Ukrainians woke up to rocket attacks and the seizure of Ukrainian towns and villages by Russian troops. The destruction that the Russian Federation has caused and continues to cause is catastrophic (Heyets et al. 2022). The scale of the damage is estimated at hundreds of billions of dollars. The number of people affected by the war is estimated to be in the millions. The consequences of the war will be felt by Ukraine and the world for decades, and it is uncertain when we will be able to recover from this tragedy. The military actions are ongoing, and there are no signs of a swift resolution to the war or the liberation of the occupied territories in the near future. On the eve of the full-scale invasion, Ukraine, like most countries in the world, was still struggling to overcome the COVID-19 pandemic. The consequences of the pandemic had excerted a profoundly negative impact on the daily lives of all Ukrainians, both men and women. Overcoming the consequences of the pandemic is still something Ukrainians do to this very day—and they do so while also having to deal with the consequences of ongoing military aggression. After eighteen months of war, there has been a significant destruction of potentialities in all social dimensions, and the living standards of ordinary Ukrainians have fallen sharply. Hundreds of thousands of people have been forced to leave their destroyed homes. Many of them have become internally displaced, while others have emigrated abroad. As of February 2023, over 4,855,000 internally displaced persons have been officially registered, although some experts suggest that this number could be over 7,000,000. According to the Civil Network OPORA of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine, as of 21 June 2023, 8,177,000 Ukrainians have migrated abroad (Ukrinform Multimedia Platform 2023). This statistical data is gender-neutral, but it is reasonable to assume that the number of women among internally displaced persons and those forced to flee abroad due to the horrors of war is significantly higher compared to men, constituting approximately 60–70 percent of the total number of individuals in these categories. Such figures were presented at the international scientific and practical conference called “Gender Policy under Martial Law: Legal Dimension.” Here, Ukrainian and foreign researchers discussed the most pressing gender issues in the context of military aggression (Scientific Institute of Public Law 2023).
Due to the war, Ukraine has ben plunged into a deep socioeconomic and financial, sociopolitical and legal, sociocultural and welfare, as well as socioenvironmental and ecological crisis. In times of war, everyone suffers: youth, children, and the elderly—both women and men. When exploring the gender issue in the context of the war in Ukraine, it would be very narrow-minded to focus solely on the inequalities or discrimination faced by women. Below, we therefore—more than in the prewar period—attempt to depict the situation in which all Ukrainian citizens find themselves. We highlight the gender issues that, in our opinion, are most striking and relevant at this time. Our study results will not be presented systematically according to the three social quality societal dimensions.
It is obvious that the overall well-being of Ukrainians has sharply deteriorated. This may be observed in Figure 1 below, which follows the social quality procedural framework. It presents impressions that as adequately as possible have been grouped according to the social quality dimensions. It depicts the dire situation Ukrainians find themselves in today.
Impressions of the Situation in Ukraine in the Four Social Quality Dimensions: February–September 2022. Source: Protosavitska et al. 2023.
Citation: The International Journal of Social Quality 13, 2; 10.3167/IJSQ.2023.130203
It is obvious that in all four dimensions that the territory, people, and society of Ukraine are completely devastated. The crisis affects all Ukrainians, without exception: those who live near the combat zone and those whose homes were destroyed, forcing them to seek refuge inside and far beyond the borders of Ukraine. The loss of their homes is one of the major challenges faced by citizens of Ukraine, regardless of gender, age, status, or income. By the end of 2022, 2.4 million Ukrainian citizens were forced to reside in destroyed or damaged buildings (MCTIU 2023). Currently, this number is significantly higher.
The emerged conditions of war are in many ways particularly challenging for women. One of the decisive circumstances that give rise to specific gender issues is that the vast majority of men have taken up arms and are fulfilling their military duty far away from home. Therefore, women have become responsible for nearly all aspects of daily life. They first of all are the only ones available and capable of bearing the responsibility of caring for the children and the elderly—just like during the COVID-19 pandemic. Raising young children and caring for non-self-sufficient relatives, including elderly parents, constitute serious burdens for women. In wartime Ukraine, there has been a lack of job opportunities that match people's qualifications, and there has been a scarcity of vacancies. There has been a significant increase in the number of people avoiding formal employment, accompanied by low wages offered for available positions. Businesses have been relocated from conflict zones to safer regions. The development of entrepreneurial activities, because men are away, has often been entrusted to women. The western regions of the country have become centers of female business activities and constitute a powerful source of economic support for the country. For women, these responsibilities constitute an extra burden. Access to medical care, medication, and societal support has been seriously reduced, causing various concerns for women and the ones they have been caring for.
The performance and the situation of women in wartime has been thoroughly analyzed in a study by Sarah Phillips and Tamara Martsenyuk (2023). Studying the issue of gender equality in Ukraine, the situation of women and girls in the context of full-scale war is brought to the fore. Various forms of resistance by Ukrainian women during Russia's war are described. The following problems were identified: women working in multiple jobs simultaneously; women caring for children, the elderly, and disabled individuals; women receiving lower wages than men; women as internally displaced persons; problems faced by women refugees abroad; and the challenges women encounter during full-scale military aggression in managing households. Regarding this last issue, cooking and laundry have required much more time and effort due to prolonged periods of electric, water, and gas shortages; and Russian servicemen have committed gender-based and sexual violence against Ukrainian women. These and many other gender problems emerged with the onset of full-scale Russian military actions and remain in effect today. Homelessness due to shortages of rented or owned houses/apartments, many of which have been damaged or destroyed by military aggression, of course has been an enormous problem with many ongoing impacts. In addition, a shortfall of available places in preschools, secondary schools, and higher education institutions has been identified (Bobrova 2023).
Sexual violence constitutes an intrusive problem with far-reaching impacts that deserves particular attention. During the military invasion, the National Police initiated seventy criminal proceedings: seventy-nine individuals, including women, men, and children, experienced sexual violence at the hands of Russian military personnel. The age of the oldest female victim was 82 years (Andrietska 2023). The actual number of victims of sexual violence or rape is estimated to be many times higher. Sexual violence during conflict is a violation of the norms of international humanitarian law and the Geneva conventions. Ukrainian legislation defines sexual violence in the context of war as a crime against peace, the security of humanity, and international law and is qualified as a violation of the laws and customs of war in the Criminal Code of Ukraine. Victims of rape and sexual violence face negative health consequences. They are at risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, including venereal diseases and HIV/AIDS, as well as internal injuries or unwanted pregnancies. All of these conditions require specialized medical care, which often is not available in wartime.
The prohibition for males 18 to 60 years old to leave Ukraine is another gender issue, in this case particularly related to men. On 24 February 2022, the Law on the Legal Regime of Martial Law, which regulated this issue, was approved (Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine 2022). Though completely justifiable under wartime conditions, this prohibition bears serious adverse impacts of gender discrimination against men.
In the military world, particular gender stereotypes are quite prevalent and may lead to tensions. The Armed Forces of Ukraine, the National Guard, and the National Police continue to be constitute a masculine world in which the age-old belief that men and women should have distinct roles is prevalent. Despite contrasting contemporary views of women, men remain dominant and privileged over women (Fulei 2023). Male soldiers perceive women as vulnerable and weak, incapable of performing complex combat tasks. Gender discrimination in the military affects women's expectations and feelings of falling short. Stereotypical beliefs hinder women defenders from fully realizing their potential. These beliefs are expressed in mistrust, offensive criticism, and the belittling of actions by the male members of military units in which women are serving. After eighteen months of war, there is a problem with material support specifically for women. Instances of noncompliance with gender-neutral standards during recruitment for military service and appointments to positions have been reported (OSCE 2020). In some cases, men may need to be assigned to specific military roles because of their physical constitution. However, in others females have equal capacities and want to be treated equally to men; their participation in peacekeeping and conflict prevention activities, for example, could significanrlyt boost the effectiveness of the Armed Forces.
In addition to above-mentioned inequalities, however, the present war situation in Ukraine has given rise to completely new opportunities for women. The number of women and girls participating in the Armed Forces has increased significantly. The same holds true for various female groups and networks that have great added value in times of war. Various women's volunteer movements have now become quite powerful. Also, on the information front, women play an extremely significant role. Their significance in the sociopolitical sphere is growing. Female activism is spreading. In the media, memes that highlight the resourcefulness of women fighting enemy drones with canned pickles are frequently shared. Even in modern Ukrainian folklore, women appear as heroines, mothers, partners, and fighters on the battlefield (Phillips and Martsenyuk 2023). In his daily addresses to the Ukrainian people, the President of Ukraine always emphasizes the heroism and resilience of Ukrainian defenders. Addressing his audience, the head of state speaks of “defenders” by using both masculine and feminine pronouns, indicating that the position of women in Ukrainian society in wartime is undergoing significant changes.
In conclusion, it is becoming apparent that women play important roles and are increasingly becoming an important part of the country's survival in the war started by the 2022 Russian invasion. Women in the military being considered as “professionals” serve as role models. They receive the same recognition as men. Reporters highlight women's successes on the battlefield and acknowledge their combat experience gained during the war. The image of a new generation of women who join the army, breaking the stereotype of being “the weaker sex” apparently, is emerging—although it is a gradual process of transition. We observe that commercial-oriented media often continue to offer their audience gender-stereotypical images by using terms like “beauty in uniform,” “beloved,” “mother,” “victim of sexual harassment,” “model for a glossy magazine,” “the weaker sex,” “eccentric.” Deploying these images of women serves purely commercial interest, and is often done for marketing purposes. These images undermine the true significance of women in the Armed Forces of Ukraine, and they do hinder the development of an egalitarian gender pattern in our society. The lesson for the future is that changing the culture and gender policies of the media—alongside national legislation regulating media activity—is an important part of putting egalitarian principles regarding gender into practice.
Conclusion
We choose to devote the conclusion of our study to suggestions and hopes for the future. After the end of the war, Ukraine will face a long-lasting and most demanding recovery process. We will be confronted with countless challenges in the socioeconomic and financial, sociopolitical and legal, sociocultural and welfare, and socioenvironmental and ecological dimensions. Valery Geets and his colleagues (2022) concluded that the main priority will be the reconstruction and creation of a strong economic/financial and environmental/ecological system in the country, on which many other aspects of recovery are based.
As for our arguments in this article, it is as yet impossible to foresee which gender issues during the prewar and durante bello period will prevail during the postwar reconstruction period. It is unpredictable which issues will remain relevant and alive in the future. Undoubtedly, despite the promising outcomes of gender initiatives in the prewar period, gender inequality and discrimination against women will certainly not vanish. The primary focus though may shift in the era that is to come. Given the present human misery and disasters of the war, we would like to dedicate our conclusion to calling for more attention to be paid and more resources to be given to women and all other persons negatively affected by the ravages of war. We hope this will aid them in dealing their traumas and returning to a normal life.
As for girls and women, this in any case includes restoring proper medical care and psychological support. Many have suffered from stress, sexual violence, various forms of deprivation and discrimination, and war atrocities. Experts in war traumatology will be needed to give assistance. Rehabilitation and reintegration into normal societal and interpersonal life needs to be supported.
Guaranteeing and ensuring equal rights and freedom for men and women, gender equality, and the prevention of any form of discrimination should become a major guide in our endeavors of reconstruction. The following are some recommendations for ensuring key gender equality issues that should be taken into account in this regard.
By highlighting major aspects of gender inequality and policies in Ukraine, this article opens up perspectives for further analysis of various gender issues. Developing gender policies deploying the framework of the four societal dimensions of social quality allows for identifying a robust analysis and for understanding gender challenges in and between societal dimensions. In order to successfully put into practice gender policies in Ukraine, the following issues must be dealt with adequately.
First and foremost, it is essential to further solidify domestic legislation to guarantee women's sociopolitical representation at a minimum of 30 percent on party lists during elections. Second, the capabilities and potential of women with higher education should be effectively utilized. Third, transparent adherence to the principle of gender equality in employment and the promotion of women in the public service are necessary. Fourth, support for women's leadership qualities in all spheres of society at various levels is vital.
In order to ensure gender equality in the planning of various programs and projects, the needs of both men and women must be considered. Men should be involved on equal footing with women in promoting gender equality ideas. Involving foreign experts in gender policy certainly will be beneficial. Coordinating joint actions in gender policy with experts from the European Union may very well provide valuable assistance in overcoming various gender-related issues. Moreover, this would reinforce the cooperation between Ukraine and (countries of) the European Union regarding a persistent and sensitive universal subject, a partnership that will yield many mutual benefits. The experiences of the Ukrainian people may shed light and inspire European legislation and programs that will be help put all of these good intentions into practice.
Notes
See https://ccu.gov.ua/sites/default/files/constitution_2019_eng.pdf (accessed 9 September 2024).
See https://www.ilo.org/publications/equal-remuneration-convention-1951-no-100 (accessed 9 September 2024).
See https://www.ilo.org/publications/workers-family-responsibilities-convention-1981-no-156-general-observation (accessed 9 September 2024).
See note 1.
See https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/2866-15#Text (accessed 27 October 2024).
See https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/776/97-%D0%B2%D1%80#Text (accessed 27 October 2024).
See https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/322-08#Text (accessed 27 October 2024).
See https://la-strada.org.ua/garyachi-liniyi (accessed 27 October 2024).
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