Textbooks are complex and multifaceted pedagogical tools. They reflect the dominant ideas of the society that produces and uses them as fundamental instruments for the education of young generations. They are products of both the era in which they are published and the educational policies prevailing at the time. They also reveal the configuration of the publishing market that produces them. Textbooks express the conceptions, knowledge, and values of their time and are used to transmit worldviews, ideologies, and cultures underlying educational content.1 Therefore, they are objects of culture in the broadest sense.2
The focus of this article on the way in which changes in the conceptualization of nature and society and their mutual relationship were reflected in textbooks during the process of democratization of Portuguese society. Our starting point is the approach to nature and society as two interconnected entities and key knowledge areas in the process of building a democratic culture. Hence, we examine whether the conceptual transformation of a democratic society and the approach of a more respectful relationship with the environment influenced school textbook knowledge.
For the purpose of our research, we selected natural sciences and contemporary history textbooks used in secondary education during the 1970s and the 1990s. The analysis of textbooks from the two periods and in the two curricular subjects aims to answer the following questions: How do these textbooks portray the prevailing ideas about society and nature in a historical phase still marked by a dictatorial regime that preceded it (the 1970s) and, later on, in a period in which democratic institutions functioned normally (the 1990s)? How do the textbooks contribute, especially in the 1990s, to the formation of a democratic culture among pupils? What are the most substantial differences between the treatment of both dimensions, nature and society, in such different historical contexts?
Textbooks emerge as rich sources of information on the ways in which the relations between nature and society have been promoted by educational systems and how these relations are a fundamental element in the development of democratic cultures. We understand democratic culture as one that promotes peace and coexistence between diverse communities and encourages the conscious exercise of citizenship among young people who attend school. Contemporary societies are now facing many challenges that have emerged over the last few decades. This is felt in particular in the high levels of hate crime, intolerance, and prejudice toward ethnic and religious minority groups, as well as in climate change, which is threatening the planet and the balance of human life. These challenges call for the formation of a democratic culture that educates young people to be informed citizens and to exercise their citizenship rights and democratic values.3
The Council of Europe publication Competences for Democratic Culture4 presents a model of “competences for democratic culture” that provides teachers at all levels with a practical tool for promoting democracy in their specific educational contexts. The underlying assumption is that democracy cannot flourish without a culture that defends it and that, above all, actively supports and promotes democratic societies. This perspective has direct consequences for the way democracy and democratic citizenship are taught in educational contexts and in compulsory education. In fact, the goal is not to teach pupils what to think “but rather how to think, in order to navigate a world where not everyone holds their views,” given that “we each have a duty to uphold the democratic principles which allow all cultures to co-exist.” With this model, the Council of Europe aims to describe the competences that pupils should acquire in order to become effectively engaged citizens and to live peacefully with others in culturally diverse and egalitarian democratic societies. These objectives are reaffirmed in the sense that it is hoped that the model will prove useful for decision-making and educational planning and will help educational systems to prepare pupils for life as democratic and interculturally competent citizens. The validity of this proposal is recognized, even if some seek to deepen it with the use of more complex competencies.5
These democratic competencies can be seen as competencies not only for living a good life in harmony with oneself and others, but also for living in harmony with nature, including the planet and the living beings that inhabit it.6 Our interest is to understand how textbooks have contributed to the construction of a democratic culture of this kind.
In Portugal, school textbooks reflected the objectives of their time and of the democratic society that was being consolidated in the last quarter of the twentieth century. Their purpose was to help educate pupils to be participatory and tolerant democratic citizens. But was the portrayal of society and nature part of this democratic education? It is relevant to analyze how textbooks contributed to this process of democratic acculturation in the past, focusing on the two selected dimensions—namely, nature and society.
The State of the Art
In Portugal, significant textbook research has been carried out by Justino Magalhães, who presented an integrated history of the school textbook in his The Wall of Time (O Mural do Tempo).7 Other works, including several master's and doctoral theses,8 have been published in recent years on school textbooks, highlighting the multidimensionality of analyses and perspectives that feed this field of research.9 However, while Portuguese textbook research has focused on the role of the textbook in constructing a worldview and developing democratic knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values, it has not addressed society and nature as categories of analysis in relation to democratic education.
Studies on Portuguese textbooks have focused more on history textbooks and less on science textbooks. Furthermore, studies on natural sciences textbooks have not focused on the creation of a democratic culture, but have, rather, emphasized other dimensions, such as the relationship between science, technology, society, and the environment (CTSA). Although there is a small amount of research on natural sciences textbooks, it focuses on specific topics that are outside the scope of our analysis.10
Therefore, this article aims to develop an original and innovative approach by analyzing how textbooks can contribute to the construction of a democratic culture.
The Selection of Textbooks
The choice of textbooks from both natural science and history disciplines was motivated by the fact that a comparison of these two fields should enable us to better understand how these two scientific perspectives (focusing on the natural physical world and human societal relations) relate to each other and how their interdependence serves to ensure a sustainable future.
The criteria defined for the selection of the textbooks used in this study were the following. The first was the stage of democracy building in Portugal, represented by the first set of textbooks (from 1974), which still express the guidelines of the final phase of the so-called “New State” (Estado Novo) and the second set of textbooks (from the 1990s), which responded to the educational policy enshrined in the Educational Law of 1986 and in the curricular reform that followed (a comparison of these two sets of textbooks made it possible to verify changes and continuities). The second was the relevance of the authors, based on the area of textbook production and their specific disciplinary and pedagogical fields. The third was the academic level of the textbooks, which cover three years of secondary education (years seven, eight, and nine) and thus cover a large segment of the school population.
Table 1 shows the educational levels examined in this article. Our analysis focuses on subjects and content taught in level two of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) proposed by UNESCO.11
A comparison of education levels in the 1970s and 1990s according to age groups and ISCED levels.
| Average Age Groups | 12 years old | 13 years old | 14 years old | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Education Levels (ISCED 2) |
Lyceum (1970s) | 3rd year | 4th year | 5th year |
| Secondary School (1990s) | 7th grade | 8th grade | 9th grade | |
In addition, the importance assigned by the UNESCO recommendations to science, technology, society, and the environment, which we will describe below, justifies our choice to focus our analysis on these areas. We therefore selected the textbooks from the school years that best portrayed these topics in the 1970s and 1990s. Table 2 shows the sample of selected textbooks (which are also included in the textbook bibliography below).
Natural sciences and history textbooks included in the selection.
| Title | Authors | Publication Year | Publisher | Size | Number of Pages |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Botânica Elementar – 4º Ano Liceal Elementary Botany – 4th Year of Lyceum |
Manuel Pires | 1974 | Livraria Popular de Francisco Franco | A5 | 80 |
| História Moderna e Contemporânea 3 Modern and Contemporary History 3 |
Fernanda Espinosa Maria Luísa Guerra |
1974 | Porto Editora | A5 | 343 |
| Ciências Naturais 7 Natural Sciences 7 |
Maria de Fátima Simões Maria Natália Ferreira Carlos Perdigão Silva |
1994 | Editorial O Livro | A4 | 255 |
| História 9 History 9 |
Maria Emilia Diniz Adérito Tavares Arlindo M. Caldeira |
1993 | Editorial O Livro | A4 | 288 |
In the 1990s, the official name of the subject area was “Natural Sciences,” and there was no specific textbook for each sub-area. By contrast, in the 1970s there were separate textbooks for botany and zoology, among other subjects. The textbooks for the other sub-areas were not analyzed because their topics did not address the issues examined in this article.
The International Context
UNESCO's influence on the Portuguese education system was crucial and needs to be taken into account in order to understand the educational changes of the second half of the twentieth century.
International Recommendations for the Teaching of Natural Sciences
In 1952, UNESCO recognized the importance of natural sciences in secondary education by asserting that without it education was incomplete. Natural sciences were valued as a medium for both the development of moral qualities and the improvement of relationships between human beings. Therefore, it recommended that pupils be taught basic knowledge about the world and the place of human beings in it and be given opportunities to experience the scientific method. UNESCO likewise recommended addressing topics regarding the “structure, functioning and care of the body of human beings and other living creatures”12 and their interdependence and dependence on the soil, as well as problems concerning food, public and private health, agriculture, and animal husbandry. The observation and description of the natural world was perceived as essential to ensure the preservation of both living creatures and natural resources. UNESCO consolidated its recommendations by publishing a sourcebook for science teaching (the first edition dates from 1956, and it has had new editions since then), which asserts that in science practical experience is required for effective learning.13 These books propose conducting experiments with accessible materials in order to explore different topics.
Later on, in 1986, UNESCO made a further recommendation for the improvement of secondary education, which it considered a way of societal development in an era of rapid scientific and technological development. Accordingly, for UNESCO the goal of secondary education was to focus on scientific and technological areas of knowledge, which it perceived as pivotal for the formation of independent and responsible adults with active roles in society. UNESCO recommended removing outdated material from the curricula in order to make way for new elements such as “environmental and ecological education” and “new technology,” which were to be prearranged in an interdisciplinary approach aimed to equip young people with the necessary tools to deal with “scientific and technological challenges.” This new focus implied “the introduction of more laboratory, experimental and practical activities . . . leading to more active participation” of pupils in the learning process.14 Hence, this document lays the foundation for the science, technology, society, and environment-oriented approach that currently characterizes natural sciences. As in the previous recommendations, these statements were reflected in new publications by UNESCO that emphasized the advantages of the use of technology in teaching.15
UNESCO's recommendations were introduced into the Portuguese natural sciences curricula of the time. From the late 1970s onward, the need for social awareness and intervention emerged from a perspective of responsible citizenship, decision-making toward individual and social well-being, harmonious coexistence with advances in science and technology, and the preservation of the environment and human health.16 This is illustrated by a summary of curricular topics (Table 3).
A summary of curricular topics proposed by the Ministry of Education for the teaching of natural sciences.
| School Subjects | School Years | Summary of Curricular Topics |
|---|---|---|
| Botany (1970s) |
4th year of Lyceum | Summary study of the morphology of specific plants, namely: pteridophytes, polypodium, bryophytes, algae, fungi, and lichens. Comparison of studied specimens, distributing them by Types (equivalent to current Kingdoms) and Classes. Elementary notions of economic botany: knowledge of plants that are useful to humans, including plant-based raw materials (food and industrial plants). |
| Natural Sciences (1990s) | 7th grade | Manifestations of geological activity Earth and its history Dynamics of ecosystems Humans’ interference in the ecosystems |
Guidelines for Teaching History
A similar movement also developed for history teaching. International documents, mainly from UNESCO and the Council of Europe, provided guidance on the need to shape pupils’ historical awareness based on an international understanding of the world, the recognition of unity in diversity (including critical perspectives and minorities), and the safeguarding of a cultural heritage to be passed on to young generations.17 In this last dimension, local history assumed increasing importance.
In the postwar period, Portugal was an authoritarian state, with a strong ideological matrix of a conservative nature, represented in the motto “God, homeland and family” (Deus, pátria e família). These values conditioned the history syllabus, which was traditionally organized around political, military, and diplomatic characters and facts. The history programs published in 1948 and 1954 had few methodological concerns, and suggested that pupils should read biographies and historical novels and that teachers should employ anecdotes, motivational poetry, engravings, slides, and appropriate maps. However, despite the existence of a conservative and authoritarian regime, history teaching was influenced by several major trends of the time. These included the historiography of Marc Bloch and historians collaborating with the French journal Annales (which emphasized the local dimension) and modern, internationally recognized pedagogical movements (Backheuser, Gal, Montessori, Wallon). These syllabi show the renewal of the subject in secondary education and the strengthening of its position in the school curriculum. They emphasize the relationship between human beings and the environment (“human beings and nature: human beings’ way of life in relation to the geographical environment”); economic and social life; customs and geographical, economic, social, and artistic aspects.18 These themes cut across different subheadings, altering the political, institutional, military, and diplomatic nature of previous programs that had been in place during the more conservative years of the New State. While history teaching underwent some changes in the late 1960s and early 1970s with the exceptional regime of pedagogical experiments, the previous curriculum remained in force until 1974.
The 1974 revolution brought democracy to the country, and, consequently, profound changes occurred in the educational system, curriculum, and syllabi, instigating intense debates in the educational field. The following years saw the creation of the Unified Secondary Education system, which put an end to two socially and culturally discriminatory subdivisions for pupils, the lyceum and vocational education. In 1986, individual measures were organically systematized in the Educational Law; new study plans and syllabi were devised in a democratic environment. Table 4 shows a summary of the curricular topics featured in the Portuguese Ministry of Education's guidelines for the teaching of history.
A summary of curricular topics proposed by the Ministry of Education for the teaching of history.
| School Subjects | School Years | Summary of Curricular Topics |
|---|---|---|
| History (1970s) |
5th year of Lyceum | World upheavals and the collapse of empires; the First World War (1914–1918); the clash of the great imperialisms—their motivations The crisis of bourgeois democracies The Second World War (1939–1945) The retreat of Western imperialism; decolonization The contemporary world: problems and trends |
| History (1990s) |
9th grade | Europe and the world on the threshold of the twentieth century (Hegemony and decline of European influence; the Soviet Revolution; Portugal: from the First Republic to the military dictatorship; society and culture in a changing world) From the Great Depression to the Second World War (The economic difficulties of the 1930s; between dictatorship and democracy; Second World War) From the Second Post-War period to the 1980s (The world after the war; the transformations of the contemporary world; Portugal: from authoritarianism to democracy) The cultural challenges of our time (The empire of science and technology—achievements and problems; massification and plurality in contemporary culture) |
The evolution of history teaching was marked by the affirmation of contemporary history and a clear multidimensionality in the curricula of 1990. These curricula contextualized society and culture in a changing world, established the dichotomy between dictatorships and democracies, and emphasized the processes of transition from authoritarianism to democratic regimes. The cultural changes of the 1990s—the period referred to as “our time” (o nosso tempo) in the 1991 program—highlighted the prevalence of science and technology and the massification and plurality of contemporary culture.
Nature, Society, Culture, and Environment in Portuguese Secondary Education Textbooks for Natural Sciences and History from 1974 to 1994
The content analysis of the selected textbooks considers the specificities of each of the scientific areas and their discursive narratives. In keeping with the central dimensions of our study (nature and society), we defined the following categories for the textbooks of each school subject. For the natural sciences textbooks, the categories are “science,” “society,” “technology,” “health,” and “environment.” For the history textbooks, the categories are “world,” “society,” “culture,” “science,” and “gender.” These categories were established based on the guidelines of the international documents and, inductively, on the topics that emerged from the textbooks studied during the qualitative content analysis.19
Science and Society in “Elementary Botany” (1974)
Elementary Botany (1974) prominently features informative texts with illustrative figures, including black-and-white schematic representations and photographs of plants. Some of the representations benefit from the use of the color green to differentiate specific features. These include twelve color prints, which are mostly colored schematic representations. Only two of these prints are photographs. The textbook also contains a few suggested exercises and suggestions for scientific experiments. The suggested exercises are formulated both to stimulate reasoning and problem-solving and to provide a deeper understanding of science. Most of the questions apply scientific reasoning to situations that pupils can observe or experience in their daily lives. As stated in the syllabus,20 the study of science must always derive from practice, without exception. Thus, this textbook suggests several scientific experiments that can be performed with everyday materials.
Although references to the evolution of scientific knowledge are scarce, references to penicillin and the scientist who discovered it provide possibilities for a discussion of this topic. This enables the more knowledgeable reader to draw a connection between the improvement of health and medical treatments and the evolution of scientific knowledge, although such a connection is not explicitly mentioned in the text.
Although scientific content prevails, it is sometimes overshadowed by other dimensions such as society and health. Additional minor connections can occasionally be drawn between the environment and technology.
The Uses of Plants in Society
In accordance with what is defined in the syllabus,21 a major part of Elementary Botany presents, rather than a naturalistic approach, an interest in the use of plants by human beings. Thus, the text discusses plants suitable for consumption, medicine, clothing, heating, and industrial use. While economic issues underly this discussion, the scientific and social dimensions prevail. Moreover, the authors explicitly establish connections between economy, science, technology, and society when they explain that expeditions, navigation, and the improvement of media allowed explorers to discover new plants that were of great economic interest. They also state that scientific developments relating to soil, seeds, and plant characteristics enhanced agriculture, thereby addressing the importance of scientific development for society.
Useful plants are grouped into three categories, according to their function (alimentary, industrial, and medicinal; see Figure 1). The authors also mention plants that cause illness to human beings, agricultural produce, and animals. Here, emphasis is placed on parasites, fungus, and bacteria. Some examples of diseases are illustrated with photographs.
A synthesis of the uses of plants in society according to the information presented in Elementary Botany (created by the authors).
Citation: Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and Society 16, 1; 10.3167/jemms.2024.160107
When addressing the general uses of plants, the authors make a clear connection between plants and the environment. Plants are deemed important for oxygen renewal, soil formation, and soil enrichment (useful for agriculture) and in order to prevent erosion and increase water vapor in the atmosphere (which produces rain and improves the climate). It is worth mentioning that this aspect receives little consideration compared to the emphasis given to the social use of plants, a topic that is clearly predominant in the textbook.
Science, Technology, Society and Environment in Natural Sciences 7 (1994)
While Natural Sciences 7, published in 1994, still shows a predominance of informative text, it is divided into smaller sections. It also features plenty of color illustrations, summaries, tables, and charts. Each chapter is divided into subchapters that usually unfold over two pages. Every subchapter includes an opening and closing question and additional exploratory questions designed to stimulate scientific reasoning. Most subchapters also include a small glossary. Every chapter ends with suggested exercises, which are meant to review and consolidate content and which vary from simple, short-answer questions to reasoning-based, long-answer questions. Each chapter presents a list of goals (regarding what the pupil should be able to do/know) and (at the end of each chapter) experiences that can be done inside or outside the classroom, in accordance with UNESCO's recommendations.22 Although they are simple to execute, many of these experiments require some laboratory material. Additionally, at the end of every chapter the authors provide supplementary readings in the form of short texts.
The curricular analysis suggests that ecological matters are emphasized in this school year and that, accordingly, scientific content is closely associated with environmental issues. The authors allow the reader to establish many connections between science, technology, and society (with and without associated environmental issues), and, to a lesser extent, with health issues.
Science and Technology: Contributions to the Advancement of Scientific Knowledge
This textbook, like its predecessor, only rarely mentions the scientists that contributed to the development of scientific knowledge. It highlights the importance of the advancement of scientific knowledge in its presentation of seismic prevention and prediction, thus showing a connection between science and technology. The textbook contains many more places where these dimensions are discussed and connected. For instance, by referring to space travel (Sputnik, Apollo 11, Voyager), the authors highlight the importance of technological advances to the development of our knowledge of the universe. Also, many of the images show the importance of technology for the advancement of science. One example is the representation of a seismograph, an instrument used to record seismic activity. Supplementary readings further develop these connections. For example, one supplementary text mentions that in November 1994 it was possible to contact space capsules from Portugal via Telecel.
The Influence and Uses of Nature and Raw Materials in Society
The textbook also offers several opportunities to perceive the connection between science and society. This connection is particularly evident in presentations of volcanoes, earthquakes, and raw materials. Examples include images of villages covered with volcanic ash; volcanic landscapes as tourist attractions; the Mercalli scale showing material damage and human casualties; the effect of earthquakes on humanmade infrastructure; the use of clay in ceramics; the use of granite and limestone as building materials; the production of concrete from clay and limestone and its use in modern buildings; marble sculptures; basalt ornamentation (in an Azorean church and house façade); and the use of other magmatic rocks as building materials (in monuments).
Alongside the pictures, the main text mentions fertile soil resulting from the weathering of volcanic rocks; the use of sediments and sedimentary rocks in industry, agriculture, and metallurgy; and the production of glass from sand and limestone. It also presents several news stories that illustrate earthquakes and their effects on the population and addresses seismic prevention (what to do before, during, and after an earthquake). The supplementary readings focus on Portuguese examples, including a chronology of earthquakes in Portugal that presents dates and place names as well as information on material and economic damage.
Concerning economic interests, one of the supplementary readings explains how coal is formed and discusses its extraction in coal mines. It also discusses the formation and economic value of oil and natural gas. This short text is accompanied by an illustration that schematically represents a coal mine, coal formation, and oil and natural gas exploration. The text also refers to the use of these energy sources in industry and everyday life. Moreover, the image of an offshore oil platform establishes a connection between science, technology, society, and the environment.
Human Activities and Their Influence on Health and the Environment
The relation between society and health is clearly illustrated in two of the supplementary readings. The first text contains a list of Portuguese thermal resorts, including their names and respective therapeutic treatments. The other text discusses the benefits and dangers of radiation, calling attention to the health perils of solar exposure (whether by excess or exposure to inadequate hours of sun) and showcases the effects of pollution on the environment and on humans. One example attributes the destruction of green areas to the excessive release of carbon dioxide by industry and transportation, which in turn leads to the decrease of oxygen. The caption clearly states that a shortage of oxygen affects all forms of life and that, without oxygen, no life is possible. This offers the authors the opportunity to discuss the effects of carbon dioxide emissions on agriculture and the latter's importance for human survival. The negative effects of technological development (namely, cars) can also be inferred.
The connection between society and the environment is made throughout the book, but it is particularly evident in the chapter devoted to the dynamics and equilibrium of the planet's ecosystems. Here, seven major themes are discussed. These include human interference in ecosystems; energetic, hydric, and biological resources; renewable and non-renewable resources; natural resources; recycling; natural parks and reserves; and protected species. The chapter emphasizes the connection between humankind's activities and the biosphere, explaining that science plays an important part in the study, exploration, and management of natural resources, as well as in the raising of awareness for the importance of preserving the environment. It clearly expresses both the demand for a rational management of natural resources and the need to avoid their destruction and ascertains the need to predict humankind's long-term effect on the ecosystem. Thus, it addresses the consequences of the overexploitation of natural resources for the development of societies.
The textbook discusses air, water, and soil pollution (caused by domestic and industrial waste, motor vehicle exhaust, and oil spills) as well as some of its consequences (ecological disasters, acid rain, deforestation, and health issues related to waste disposal in dumpsters). It states that waste and poisonous substances that are buried can contaminate soil and water; that, furthermore, radioactive materials are extremely harmful for living beings; and that, consequently, humankind's activities are responsible for the extinction of many species. Photographs portray the consequences of human activity on wildlife (polar bears and birds, for example). While an underlying link could be established between these issues and health issues, this connection is never clearly stated as such. The only clear connection with health issues is made regarding dumpsters (it is stated that they promote disease outbreaks and soil contamination). Later on, the text addresses toxic waste from hospitals, but once more establishes no direct connection with public health.
Articulated from this ecological perspective, the text states that, among other measures, humankind should use the earth's resources in a reasonable and sensible manner. This means promoting technological development without exhausting non-renewable energy resources. The text also stresses the importance of the use of alternative (renewable) energy and recycling.
Alongside these problems, the text also presents solutions for the efficient preservation of air, water, and soil. Plenty of images show ways to safely treat residues (for example, by storing them in watertight landfills) and to use renewable and non-polluting energy in public transportation, as well as unleaded petrol in cars. Biological agriculture (without insecticide and fertilizers) is also mentioned. Moreover, one of the supplementary readings considers the use of alternative, renewable geothermic energy in the Azores and discusses the recycling of urban, industrial, and toxic waste as a way to avoid both the depletion of natural resources and the alteration of air, soil, and water quality.
The World and Society in “Modern and Contemporary History 3” (1974)
This history textbook, which was published in 1974, still represents a continuity with the previous period, which was dominated by the use of a single textbook and a conservative and somewhat totalitarian view of the world. It was in force for many years, until democracy was established with the Carnation Revolution (1974). In keeping with the 1954 syllabus, this textbook also includes some guidelines from the late 1960s and early 1970s that encouraged various pedagogical experiments and innovations. The period covered by the manual is long, stretching from the eighteenth century to the present day. The contemporary history phase occupies about one third of the book. This is the part we analyzed, having done so in order to follow the same timeline in both history textbooks.
In addition to the authors’ narrative, great importance is given to documents, which are often included in the body of the text, and to vocabulary, which appears at the end of the book. The graphics are light and include photographs (usually in black and white), graphs, and maps (often in color). The book is essentially descriptive.
In accordance with the curricular guidelines, the textbook emphasizes political, military, and economic themes. It stresses the two World Wars and defends a global perspective of the world in which the importance of the superpowers and their respective political-military blocs (NATO, Warsaw Pact) is highlighted. The textbook presents the landing of men on the moon as a landmark event and as an achievement of science and technology in the context of the Cold War and the US–Soviet rivalry.
The authors value democracies and international organizations such as the United Nations (in contrast to totalitarian systems such as fascism and Nazism) and mention the importance of so-called “Third World” countries and revolutionary and liberation movements (Cuba, Che Guevara). The history of Portugal is inserted into the country's position in the world with regard to international events (for example, in the section called “Portugal in the War of 1914–1918”).
The textbook is characterized by a dichotomous perspective of the world that establishes the binomials “capitalist world vs socialist world” and “societies of abundance and consumption vs poorer societies.” Today, we can point to many absences and silences in this textbook, but it was a product of the different conditions that made its production possible.
Society, Culture, Science, and Gender in History 9 (1993)
History 9, a textbook by Maria Emília Diniz, Adérito Tavares, and Arlindo M. Caldeira published in 1993, is considered by many history teachers to be a milestone in the production of textbooks in Portugal. The textbook is well-structured and coherent, and is a truly useful working tool for both the pupil and the teacher.
The textbook's success was based on the authors’ ability to mobilize basic tools to support pupils’ learning. These tools included simple and structured content explanation supported by abundant and diversified documentation and the inclusion of work, reflection, and research clues that invite pupils to carry out research. In turn, it provided teachers with a wide variety of teaching resources, allowing them to choose between different methodological options.
The structure of the book has contributed to its success. Each teaching unit begins with an introductory page that situates pupils in the space and time in which the topic develops, featuring a map and a chronological bar as well as an image and a short summary text, all of which are intended to motivate pupils to learn about the changes that have taken place. Each unit is organized into subunits, each of which occupies one double-page spread, with the respective headings and subheadings clearly highlighted and prioritized. The evident alternation of informative text (even page) and documents referring to the same topic (odd page) facilitates reading and comprehension. The documents include written texts (always adapted), iconographic documents, maps, diagrams, and graphs, and are suggestions that the teacher can use or replace with others that they have chosen.
The suitability of the textbook to the pupils’ profile is expressed in its language (synthetic speech), its reduced focus (concentrating on essential aspects), the quality of its materials, and its clarity. These characteristics increase the intelligibility and quality of the textbook. Additional resources include sections entitled “Learning to Learn” (which provide a methodological initiation to elementary history research); “Dossiers” (which provide in-depth information on some topics to be developed in individual or group work); and “How to Learn More” (which present lists of monuments and museums, books, films, and computer programs at the end of each topic).
The section entitled “The Names of History” presents biographies of historical personalities with a motivating text and attractive illustrations. The personalities presented include Serpa Pinto (the Portuguese explorer who crossed Africa from coast to coast); Fernando Pessoa (one of the greatest Portuguese poets, who wrote under several pseudonyms); Anne Frank (the young Jewish girl murdered by the Nazis and famous for her diary); Albert Einstein (sage and humanist); and Martin Luther King Jr. (the US civil rights leader). These personalities represent some of the fundamental values of society and are presented as points of reference for the young learners who use the textbook.
The central place of the pupil in the textbook is also reflected in the reflective and creative activities suggested in the text and in knowledge assessment sheets that are designed to help pupils to regulate their learning more autonomously.
Society
Society is presented from a global perspective and marked by political, military, and economic dimensions (the military dimension is reflected in the presentation of the two World Wars and their consequences). The worldview presented by the authors is essentially organized to express the struggle between democracy and totalitarianism (fascism, corporatism, Nazism) as well as the tension between the two blocs (capitalism and socialism). However, it also stresses the importance of decolonization and underdevelopment in the so-called “Third World,” revolutions (Cuba, Che Guevara), and the policy of non-alignment.
In this international context, Portugal is presented via a series of historic events. These include the fall of the monarchy and the First Republic (within the context of Europe and the world on the threshold of the twentieth century); the Salazar dictatorship and the New State (with its political characteristics and repressive devices in the period between the Great Depression and the Second World War); the evolution of the Portuguese economy, society, and politics (including the crisis of the rural world, emigration, and opposition to the regime and colonial wars); the revolution of 25 April 1974 (emphasizing the conquest of freedom, depicted on the cover of the manual from 1993); and the establishment of democratic Portugal (democracy building, decolonization, and future expected development).
Culture and Science
The cultural approach is present in several themes throughout the book. These include “society and culture in a changing world at the end of the century,” where social, cultural, and scientific transformations are emphasized. The text also underscores the break with the past along with cultural innovation in the arts, architecture, and literature (giving great importance to the poet Fernando Pessoa).
The last theme of the program and of the textbook is devoted to the “cultural challenges of our time,” which is divided into two sections. The first of these, “The Empire of Science and Technology,” covers the topics of scientific research and technical progress; the electronic revolution (telecommunications, information technology, and robotics); energy problems and the nuclear threat (nuclear weapons, nuclear energy, alternative energies, ozone layer, and the greenhouse effect, and the conquest of space); and progress in medicine and biotechnology (diseases such as AIDS, viruses and vaccines, the test tube baby, the dangers of science, and the planet as the common home under threat). The second section, “Massification and Plurality in Contemporary Culture,” covers current and thought-provoking topics such as technological civilization and culture diffusion with the expansion of schooling (the school explosion, the democratization of education, and the permanence of illiteracy); mass culture (the manipulative power of television, youth culture in the 1960s, the Beatles phenomenon, the myth of Marilyn Monroe); and creativity and the multiplicity of experiences in literature and the arts (literary creation and the diversity of paths in art and avantgarde artists such as Sartre, Pollock, Vieira da Silva, and Pomar).
Other established topics are the defense of cultural identity and the preservation of heritage (the example given is the village museum of Mértola in the Alentejo region) and the renewal of extra-European cultural standards. From this perspective, it is necessary to consider cultural relativism and the end of the cultural monopoly of the West and to emphasize various forms of expression in different geographies, such as the so-called “negritude” expressed in paintings by African artists (such as the Mozambiquan painter and poet Malangatana Ngwenya).
This approach is innovative for the textbooks of the time due to the themes, quality of the materials, and the examples presented. The balance and wisdom of this approach do not conceal the fact that other textbooks of the time presented certain topics differently—for example, the topic of coexistence of people with different “levels of civilization.” In other textbooks, these levels of civilization are presented separately in a way that creates a dichotomy between different ways of life in the developed world and underdeveloped countries. The representatives of these different levels do not meet; they live in separate worlds and do not coexist. By contrast, the textbook we have analyzed brings them into dialogue with one another.
Gender
If we consider a wide range of textbooks, we find that women are practically invisible, as they appear very rarely.23 When they do appear, they are usually presented in the company of a man (Marilyn Monroe with Elvis Presley) or performing duties conventionally attributed to women (nursing and teaching, for example). However, contrary to this general representation, the textbook analyzed here gives a significant role to women, dedicating a section to the feminist movement, where it addresses the traditional condition of women and the struggle for female emancipation. Topics covered include women's education, the condition of women in Portugal, women's suffrage movements in various countries, and the struggle for women's suffrage and other rights.
Women are very well represented in this textbook, not only in the dimensions mentioned, but also in various subjects and via many photos. Women have a transversal presence, as they are situated in various contexts (sport, dance, festivals, labor strikes), assume the role of protagonists in many situations, and also assert themselves via creativity, for example as artists (as in the case of the painter Helena Vieira da Silva).
Conclusion
The analysis of the textbooks allows us to confirm a number of issues. From the editorial point of view, the relations that can be established between the text and other resources (photos, maps, graphs) reflect new editorial orientations. The textbooks published in the 1990s were innovative at the time because their graphic layout and use of color were better defined, and because they introduced a groundbreaking arrangement of elements that enhanced the clarity of their intended message. When compared with textbooks from the 1970s, these textbooks reflect a much more visual approach characterized by the prevalence of schematically presented information. These aspects express the didactic concerns underlying the textbooks’ design and structure as well as the increasingly central place given to pupils and their way of learning, which, it is implied, must be appropriate and meaningful.
Science textbooks express the international recommendations for science teaching. Similarly, there are international guidelines for history teaching. However, in the latter case the perspective of national experts is predominant, even though they are influenced by international trends in the field of historical research, history teaching, and pedagogy.
The science textbooks from the 1990s are not as concerned with the use of experiments with simple, everyday materials as the textbooks from the 1970s had been. In the former, the images complement the text but there is much content that, while not explicit in the text itself, can be inferred from the images accompanying the text. Despite the limitations that we may point out today regarding their silences and absences, these textbooks were a novelty in their time and are part of a revolution that affected school textbooks in Portugal.
Although they address two very different fields of knowledge, we believe that the textbooks in both subjects are focused on transmitting the necessary knowledge, procedures, skills, values, and attitudes for the development of a democratic culture in its most essential aspects. These two subjects, that seem so distant from each other, acquire synergies and become part of a whole in which the different elements interconnect. The promotion of scientific knowledge on nature enables the education of populations such that it promotes attitudes of respect for the environment, a better use of natural products, resources and raw materials, and healthier lifestyles.
The textbooks from the 1970s were a product of the New State educational system, which was conservative and positivist in nature and dominated by the concept of a single textbook per subject. These textbooks did not express any concern for nature and society, and only conveyed the knowledge that was considered fundamental to each field. The revolution of April 1974 and the subsequent establishment of the democratic system in Portugal brought issues of democratic culture and education for citizenship to the forefront of the educational debate. How should young people be educated for a democratic society? Textbooks published over the next two decades increasingly expressed these concerns. Textbooks then followed the rules of the publishing market for such books, and the government set guidelines for the field. The textbooks of the 1990s clearly express the importance of this debate.
Both textbooks from the 1990s express environmentalist concerns and promote an ecological perspective, emphasizing the relationship of human beings with their “common home,” the planet, and defending the balance of ecosystems. They do so from different but complementary points of view, with the latter being stronger in the natural sciences textbook. For its part, the history textbook also deals with similar themes, but frames them in the social, cultural and political contexts of the time—space travel is an expression of the development of science (as the natural sciences textbook presents), but man's landing on the moon is framed by the situation of the Cold War and US–Soviet rivalry in the history textbook. Dealing with the lives of people in space and time, the history textbook presents the major themes of the twentieth century (with explicit links to the themes in the natural sciences textbook) but reveals a remarkable ability to articulate them, placing them within the movements of permanence and change that have taken place. A further characteristic of the history textbook is the development of themes that have hitherto been little covered in other textbooks, such as the challenges of the changing world (with nuclear threats and the hole in the ozone layer); the progress of science and medicine (combating diseases such as AIDS, or vaccination campaigns against viruses); a decentralized and intercultural view of the world (with references to peoples from other continents with different cultures, religions, and economies); and a transversal presence of women (highlighting their situation and the importance of feminist movements).
The textbooks, whether for science or history, value the relationship of human beings with planet earth, respect the judicious use of its resources, and recognize the value of cultural diversity and coexistence within democratic communities. These are elements for promoting a democratic culture among young people, and school textbooks emerge as a fundamental tool in this process.
Acknowledgments
This publication is part of the R & D & I project PID2020-115282GA-I00 financed by MCIN/ AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and entitled “The Individual, Nature and Society: A Study of Their Interrelations and Representations in School Textbooks in Spain and Portugal in the Final Third of the Twentieth Century.”
Notes
See Justino Magalhães, O mural do tempo: manuais escolares em Portugal [The wall of time: School textbooks in Portugal] (Lisbon: Instituto de Educação da Universidade de Lisboa, 2011), 15–133.
Agustin Escolano, “The Manual as Text: The Construction of an Identity,” in Auf der Suche nach der wahren Art von Textbüchern [In search of the true nature of textbooks], ed. Angelo Van Gorp and Mark Depaepe (Bad Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt, 2009), 37–49; Dominique Julia, “La culture scolaire comme objet historique” [School culture as a historical object], Paedagogica Historica 31 (1995): 353–382, doi:10.1080/00309230.1995.11434853.
Council of Europe, Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture, vols. 1–3, (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2018), https://www.coe.int/en/web/campaign-free-to-speak-safe-to-learn/reference %20framework-of-competences-for-democratic-culture.
Council of Europe, Competences for Democratic Culture: Living Together as Equals in Culturally Diverse Democratic Societies (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2016), https://rm.coe.int/16806ccc07.
Ólafur Páll Jónsson and Antonio Garces Rodriguez, “Educating Democracy: Competences for a Democratic Culture,” Education, Citizenship and Social Justice 16, no. 1 (2021): 62–77, here 63, doi:10.1177/1746197919886873.
See Ricardo Guzmán Díaz, “Ética ambiental y desarrollo: participación democrática para una sociedad sostenible” [Environmental ethics and economic development: Democratic participation for a sustainable society], Polis: Revista Latinoamericana 12, no. 34 (2013): 403–419, doi:10.4067/S0718-65682013000100020.
Magalhães, O mural do tempo. See also Justino Magalhães, “The School Manual within the Framework of Cultural History: Towards a Historiography of the School Manual in Portugal,” Sísifo: Educational Sciences Journal 1 (2006): 7–16; and Justino Magalhães and Rui Vieira de Castro, “Entre a lei e o mercado: aspectos da existência do manual escolar em Portugal, no século XX” [Between the law and the market: Aspects of the existence of the school textbook in Portugal in the twentieth century], in Manuales Escolares en España, Portugal y América Latina (siglos XIX y XX) [School textbooks in Spain, Portugal and Latin America (nineteenth and twentieth centuries)], ed. Jean-Louis Guereña, Gabriela Ossenbach Sauter, and María del Mar del Pozo Andrés (Madrid: UNED Ediciones, 2005), 135–176.
See, for example, Cristina Maia, Guerra Fria e Manuais Escolares—Distanciamentos e Aproximações: um retrato em duas décadas de manuais escolares europeus (1980–2000) [Cold war and school textbooks—distancing and rapprochement: A portrait of two decades of European school textbooks (1980–2000)] (Porto: Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto, 2010).
See Cláudia Pinto Ribeiro, Eva Baptista, José António Moreno Afonso, and Juliana Rocha, A Investigação em História da Educação: novos olhares sobre as fontes na era digital [Research into the history of education: New perspectives on sources in the digital age] (Porto: CITCEM – Centro de Investigação Transdisciplinar Cultura, Espaço e Memória, 2021); and Cláudia PintoRibeiro, Luís Alberto Alves, and Raquel Pereira Henriques, Manuais Escolares: Presenças e Ausências [School textbooks: Presences and absences] (Porto: CITCEM, 2018). Research on textbooks in Portugal has had a particularly strong link with the MANES Project in Spain, which was founded in 1992 and which included Portuguese textbooks in its textbook catalogue (a process that was coordinated by Justino Magalhães on the Portuguese side). The project entitled “Education and Cultural Heritage: Schools, Objects and Practices,” funded by the Foundation for Science and Technology and coordinated by Maria João Mogarro, also paid particular attention to school textbooks, maintaining a specific research group on the subject. See Maria João Mogarro, Educação e Património Cultural: Escolas, Objetos e Práticas [Education and cultural heritage: Schools, objects, and practices] (Lisbon: Colibri/IEUL, 2013). Research in Portugal has been most influenced by the contributions of Alain Choppin and the important work of Agustin Escolano Benito, the editor of the collective work The Illustrated History of the School Book in Spain. See Alain Choppin, Les manuels scolaires: histoire et actualité [School textbooks: History and actuality] (Paris: Hachette, 1992); Alain Choppin, “O historiador e o livro escolar” [The historian and the textbook], Revista História da Educação 6, no. 11 (2002): 5–24, https://seer.ufrgs.br/asphe/article/view/30596; Alain Choppin, “Le manuel scolaire: une fausse évidence historique” [The school textbook: false historical evidence], Histoire de l’éducation 117 (2008): 7–56, doi:10.4000/histoire-education.565; and Agustín Escolano Benito, ed., Historia ilustrada del libro escolar en España, vol. 1: Del Antiguo Régimen a la Segunda República; vol. 2: De la posguerra a la reforma educativa [The illustrated history of the schoolbook in Spain, vol. 1: From the ancien régime to the Second Republic; volume 2: From the postwar period to the educational reform] (Madrid: Fundación Sánchez Ruipérez, 1997–1998).
See Bento Cavadas, “From the Contracting Earth to Continental Drift: Wegener's Influence in Portuguese and Spanish Science Textbooks Through the Twentieth Century,” Earth Sciences History 38, no. 1 (2019): 74–93, doi:10.17704/1944-6178-38.1.74 and Bento Cavadas, “‘On the Origin of Species’: Didactic Transposition to the Curriculum and Portuguese Science Textbooks (1859–1959),” Espacio, Tiempo y Educación 4, no. 2 (2017): 143–164, doi:10.14516/ete.149.
UNESCO, International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011 (Quebec: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2012), 107, http://uis.unesco.org/ (accessed 10 July 2023).
UNESCO, Recommendation No. 35 to the Ministries of Education concerning Teaching of Natural Science in Secondary Schools (Paris: UNESCO, 1952), 107, https://dmz-ibe2-vm.unesco.org/en (accessed 12 June 2023).
UNESCO, New UNESCO Source Book for Science Teaching (Paris: UNESCO, 1973), https://unesdoc.unesco.org/home (accessed 10 July 2023).
UNESCO, International Conference on Education 40th Session (Geneva: UNESCO International Bureau of Education, 1986), 38, https://dmz-ibe2-vm.unesco.org/en (accessed 10 July 2023).
David Layton, ed., Innovations in Science and Technology Education (Tournai: UNESCO, 1986).
João Praia and António Cachapuz, “Ciência-Tecnologia-Sociedade: um compromisso ético” [Science-technology-society: An ethical commitment], Revista CTS 2, no. 6 (2005): 173–194, here 189, doi:10.3402/edui.v2i1.21961.
Thomas Nygren, “UNESCO and Council of Europe Guidelines, and History Education in Sweden, c. 1960–2002,” Education Inquiry 2, no. 1 (2011): 37–60, doi:10.3402/edui.v2i1.21961.
Raquel Henriques, Discursos legais e práticas educativas: ser professor e ensinar História (1947–1974) [Legal discourses and educational practices: Being a teacher and teaching history (1947–1974)] (Lisbon: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, 2010), 354.
Margrit Schreier, Qualitative Content Analysis in Practice (Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2012).
Lyceum Curricula (PT), 7 September 1954, https://files.dre.pt/gratuitos/1s/1954/09/19800.pdf.
Ibid.
UNESCO, International Conference on Education 40th Session.
See Virginia Guichot-Reina and Ana María de la Torre-Sierra's article in this issue.
Textbook Bibliography
Diniz, Maria Emília, Adérito Tavares, and Arlindo M. Caldeira. História 9 [History 9]. Lisbon: Editorial O Livro, 1993.
Espinosa, Fernanda, and Maria Luísa Guerra. História Moderna e Contemporânea 3 [Modern and contemporary history 3]. Porto: Porto Editora, 1974.
Pires, Manuel. Botânica Elementar – 4º Ano Liceal [Elementary botany – 4th year of Lyceum]. Lisbon: Livraria Popular de Francisco Franco, 1974.
Simões, Maria de Fátima, Maria Natália Ferreira, and Carlos Perdigão Silva. Ciências Naturais 7 [Natural sciences 7]. Lisbon: Editorial O Livro, 1994.
